THE  WOODWORKER  SERIES 


WOODCARVING 

(THE  WOODWORKER.  SERIES) 


WOODCARVING 

(THE   WOODWORKER   SERIES) 


231    ILLUSTRATWXS 


PHILADELPHIA 

J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY 


^3 


in  Library 


Piiutcd  m  Grejt  Britain 


CONTENTS 


I.  CARVING  GOTHIC  FORMS 

II.  BORDERS  (GOTHIC). 

III.  CARVING  THE  GOTHIC  TREFOIL 

IV.  HOW  TO  CARVE  THE  ACANTHUS  LEAF 
V.  ANOTHER  FORM  OF  LEAF      . 

VI.  A  CARVED  FRAME  . 

VII.     THE    DECORATION    OF    PICTURE    AND 
MIRROR  FRAMES 

VIII.     CARVING  A  HERALDIC  SHIELD 

IX.    APPLICATION  OF  CARVING  TO  FURNI 
TUBE 

(1)  Elizabethan  Oak  Chest  . 

X.     APPLICATION  OF  CARVING  TO  FURNI 
TURE 

(2)  Ornament  for  a  Pediment    . 

XI.     APPLICATION  OF  CARVING  TO  FURNI 
TURE 

(3)  Design  for  a  Cabinet  Door  . 

XII.     APPLICATION  OF  CARVING  TO  FURNI 
TURE 

(4)  Gothic  Tracery    . 

XI11.     APPLICATION  OF  CARVING  TO  FURNI 
TURE 

(5)  The  Carved  Cabriole  Leg 


PAOE 

1 
10 
19 
27 
35 
43 

49 


63 


70 


82 


88 


Contents 


XIV. 

xv. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 
XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 


PAGE 

CONVENTIONAL     LION     AND     GALLIC 

COCK  (APPLIED  TO  SPANDRELS)     .       95 

NATURAL    FORMS:     CARVING    A    BIRD 

AND  FOLIAGE  PANEL        .  .  .101 

NATURAL    FORMS:     CARVING    A    FISH 

PANEL 107 

NATURAL  FORMS:    CARVING   A   HARE 

AND  SQUIRREL  PANEL     .  .  .114 

THE    CARVING    OF    AMORINO    HEADS 

ON   BRACKETS 120 

CARVING    GROTESQUE    HEADS    AND 

MASKS 125 

CARVING  GROTESQUES  :    THE  GRIFFIN     130 

FIGURE  CARVING  :  PANELLED  FIGURES     136 

A  CARVED  MILITARY  PANEL.  .  .     142 

CARVING  HEADS  FROM  SHADED  DRAW- 

INGS 147 

CARVING  ON  EARLY  VICTORIAN  FUR- 
NITURE  154 

FESTOONS  OR  SWAGS       .  .  .165 

CARVED  CONSOLES  FOR  DOOR  CANOPY     171 
WOODCARVING  TOOLS     .         .         .         .177 


SHARPENING  TOOLS 

DESIGNS    . 

WOODS  FOR  CARVING 

INDEX 


185 
191 
201 
211 


FOREWORD 

A  GLANCE  at  the  contents  of  this  Volume  will 
indicate  that  its  aim  is  to  be  of  practical  help 
to  the  practical  man.  By  '  practical  *  is  not  meant 
merely  the  student  of  woodcarving,  but  rather  the 
woodworker  who  wishes  to  combine  art-carving  with 
constructional  work.  A  panel  or  other  carved  form 
is  nothing  in  itself.  It  only  becomes  something  real 
when  it  is  a  part  of  some  larger  woodwork  structure 
— that  is,  an  ornamental  feature  of  some  piece  of 
constructional  woodwork  or  of  a  useful  article  of 
furniture. 

The  following  chapters  have,  for  the  most  part, 
been  written  by  an  experienced  woodcarver  who,  for 
many  years,  has  had  the  opportunity  of  training 
others  in  the  craft.  He  does  not  regard  woodcarving 
as  an  end  in  itself,  but  as  a  means  of  artistic  woodwork 
decoration.  He  assumes  his  reader  to  be  the  practical 
man  who,  in  turning  to  woodcarving,  has  a  definite 
object  in  view — the  object  of  combining  an  art  craft 
with  everyday  woodwork.  The  student  can  produce 
panels  of  various  forms  which  may  be  admired  as 
such,  but  it  is  the  carver-cabinetmaker  who  builds 
and  ornaments  his  own  furniture. 

In  the  Volume  will  be  found  five  chapters  dealing 


Foreword 

specifically  with  the  application  of  carving  to  furniture. 
In  the  subsequent  chapters,  however,  the  blending  of 
art-handwork  and  construction  is  kept  in  view,  and 
the  treatment  of  natural  forms,  of  grotesques  and 
figure  subjects,  has  all  a  direct  bearing  on  the  general 
aim. 

The  illustrations,  of  which  there  are  a  large  number, 
have  been  specially  drawn  to  elucidate  the  text,  and 
— with  a  few  exceptions — are  the  work  of  the  author. 
Several  suggestive  designs,  not  specially  referred  to 
in  the  text,  have  been  added.  The  comprehensive 
Index  will  be  found  useful  for  reference  to  details. 

J.  C.  S.  Brough. 


I.— GOTHIC    FORMS 

EVERY  PRACTICAL  HANDBOOK  has  neces- 
sarily a  chapter  dealing  with  tools  and  materials, 
and  as  a  rule  this  chapter  is  placed  first.  In  the 
present  case,  however,  the  writer  is  taking  the 
liberty  to  depart  from  a  time-honoured  rule. 
The  chapter  on  tools  is  included,  but  it  appears 
later.  The  truth  is  that  no  beginner  at  woodcarving 
requires  a  complete  outfit.  For  what  he  can  at  first 
accomplish  only  a  few  well  chosen  tools  are  necessary. 
To  bring  him  at  the  outset  face  to  face  with  a  for- 
midable list  of  various  chisels,  gouges,  fluters,  veiners, 
bent  background  and  parting  tools  is  but  to  bewilder 
him.  These,  later  on,  he  can  face  fearlessly  as  the  uses 
of  the  different  tools  become  familiar  to  him  ;  but, 
to  begin  with,  what  will  interest  him  more  is  to  under- 
stand what  can  be  done  with  a  range  of  from  six  to 
a  dozen  tools. 

Gothic  forms. — As  an  introduction  to  woodcarving, 
no  better  examples  or  exercises  can  be  given  than  those 
of  the  work  of  the  Gothic  period.  Here  we  find  abun- 
dant proof  of  clean  and  crisp  cutting,  full  of  life  and 
activity,  combined  with  a  true  appreciation  of  nature. 
At  the  same  time  the  limitations  of  the  material  and 
the  tools  employed  are  frankly  acknowledged.  There- 
fore, if  we  approach  the  subject  in  the  spirit  of  the  men 
of  old  we  cannot  but  succeed.  There  is  of  course  no 
necessity  to  stay  where  they  have  stayed,  but  we  may 
take  advantage  of  such  knowledge  as  is  handed  down 
to  us.  Their  tools  were  few,  and  so  should  it  be  with  a 
beginner. 

It  is  wonderful  what  an  amazing  variety  of  shapes 
and  forms  can  be  cut  with  half  a  dozen  carving  tools. 
Fig.  1  represents  a  block  of  wood  4J  in.  square  and 


IVoodcarving 

f  in.  thick,  of  pine,  walnut,  oak,  or  any  close-grained 
freely  cutting  wood  available.      This  is  the  surface 
upon  which  we  are  going  to  execute  our  first  lesson. 
Upon  the  block  of  wood  trace  the  outline  of  the 
Gothic  leaf  shown.     Assume  that  the  wood  is  held 


FIG.    1. — GOTHIC   LEAF   FORM  J     FIRST   STAGE   OF   CARVING 


firmly  to  a  table,  carving  board,  or  bench,  by  means 
of  a  cramp,  Fig.  4.  (The  cramp  shown  is  better  than 
the  ordinary  form  so  often  used,  which  is  weak  at 
the  angles,  and  soon  gets  out  of  order.  In  Fig.  5  the 
imprint  of  the  tools  to  be  used  is  given.  Any  further 
illustration  is  unnecessary,  as  all  tools  by  first-class 
manufacturers  are  alike  in  form,  the  only  necessity 


Gothic  Forms 

being  that  it  should  be  understood  whether  bent  or 
straight  tools  are  ordered.  In  this  set  forms  D  and  E 
should  be  bent.  A  Washita  oilstone,  a  Washita  slip, 
and  an  Arkansas  slip  are  required.  The  oilstone  is  for 
sharpening  chisels  and  the  outside  of  gouges,  the 
Washita  slip  for  the  inside  of  gouges,  and  the  Arkansas 
slip  for  V  tools  and  veiners.    A  piece  of  leather  should 


FIG.    2. — GOTHIC   LEAF   FORM  ;     SECOND    STAGE    OF   CARVIVG 


also  be  provided  for  the  purpose  of  stropping.  Short 
lengths  of  old  leather  belting  make  excellent  strops 
for  carving  tools. 

First  stage  in  carving. — Assuming  now  that  we 
have  marked  out  the  diagrams  and  that  tools  and 
accessories  are  ready  to  hand  and  in  the  condition  to 
make  good  and  clean  cuts,  take  the  chisel  (A,  Fig.  5) 


IVoodcarving 

and  set  in  the  outline,  taking  care  in  forcing  down  that 
the  blade  slants  slightly  outwards  towards  the  outside 
of  the  block.  This  is  to  allow  of  a  little  wood  being 
left  for  the  purpose  of  trueing  up  afterwards.  The 
wood  is  now  cut  away  in  a  slanting  direction  from  the 
outside  edge  towards  the  centre.  (See  section,  Fig.  6.) 
It  is  preferable  to  cut  this  away  by  means  of  the  flat 


FIG.    3. — GOTHIC    LEAF   FORM  ;     FINAL   STAGE   OF   CARVING 

gouge,  and  also  to  sink  the  pattern  by  means  of  the 
deeper  gouge  instead  of  setting  in  with  the  chisel. 
This,  however,  requires  more  practice  and  care,  the 
reason  being  that  a  chisel  is  apt  to  force  the  wood 
and  cause  cracks.  Nearly  all  the  oldest  and  best  work 
is  modelled  and  sunk  by  means  of  the  gouge  alone. 

Having    sunk    this    diamond-shaped    outline    to    a 
depth  of  at  least  J  in.,  take  the  gouge  (D)  and  cut 


Gothic  Forms 

out  the  inner  circular  ring,  leaving  the  centre  raised. 
In  doing  this,  work  from  right  to  left,  or  vice  versa, 
according  to  the  grain  of  the  wood.  Proceed  in  the 
same  manner  with  the  outer  circle,  using  the  smaller 
gouge  (E).  When  finished,  form  lobes  by  means  of 
sunk  channels  or  cuts,  as  in  Fig.  1.  These  should  be 
deep — that  is,  carried  down  to  a  depth  approaching 


^w^v^>^>^ 


OiL  STONE 


FIG.    4. — CRAMP,    OILSTONE,    AND    SLIPS 


\  in.  Now,  by  means  of  the  gouge,  we  cut  away  the 
wood  on  the  outside  edges  of  the  lobes,  thereby 
dividing  the  main  lobes  into  groups  of  three  or  more 
smaller  ones  on  one  main  lobe.  The  general  appear- 
ance of  the  wood  block  should  now  assume  the  form 
as  in  Fig.  1. 

Second  stage. — Take  the  flat  gouge  or  chisel,  and 


IVoodcarving 

cut  or  round  off  all  the  rectangular  edges  of  the  circular 
grooves  (the  surface  will  take  the  form  of  that  shown 
in  section  Fig  6,  G  and  H),  care  being  taken  to  do  this 
with  as  few  cuts  as  possible,  and  to  abstain  from 
giving  the  rounded  edges  too  smooth  an  appearance. 
The  marks  of  the  tool  and  the  facets  made  by  them 


B 


D 


E        F 


Jin. 


IN. 


IN. 


IN, 


IN. 


3 

18 


IX. 


FIG.     5. SET    OF     SIX     CARVING    TOOLS. 

A,    CHISEL,  ;     B    AXD    C,    FLAT    GOUGES  J 
D    AND    E,    BENT    GOUGES  ;      F,    V-TOOL 


FIG.    6. SECTIONS    OF   CARVING 


are  one  of  the  charms  and  characteristics  of  wood- 
earving.  The  general  modelling  on  the  ends  of  the 
lobes,  etc.,  is  then  finished  by  means  of  the  smaller 
shallow  gouge  (C). 

After  the  junction  of  the  leaf  stalks  with  the  leaf 
has  been  carved  the  example  could  very  well  be  left 
without  any  further  work  being  done  upon  it. 

Third  stage. — If  it  is  wished  to  carry  this  leaf 
exercise  still  further,  leading  veins  should  be  cut  in. 


Gothic  Forms 

(Fig.  3.)  This  is  done  by  means  of  the  V  tool  (F),  a 
groove  being  cut  on  either  side  of  the  intended  vein, 
leaving  a  raised  part  in  the  centre  for  the  surface  of 
the  vein  which  is  then  slightly  rounded.  The  valleys 
or  grooves  caused  by  the  V  tool  should  be  rounded 
or  splayed  off  on  to  the  general  surface  of  the  leaf. 
If,  in  spite  of  all  care  taken,  an  accident  should  occur 


FIG.    7. THE    MAPLE    LEAF 

to  one  or  more  of  the  lobes,  do  not  be  discouraged, 
but  take  advantage  of  the  latitude  afforded  by  exam- 
ples in  nature  and  cut  or  model  these  parts  on  a  lower 
plane.  Should  it  be  desired  to  remove  the  surplus 
wood  which  surrounds  the  leaf,  this  can  be  done  in 
the  usual  way  with  the  chisel,  but  to  the  carver  the 
marks  left  by  the  flat  gouge  are  more  pleasing. 
When,  these  leaf  forms  are  used  in  a  design  for 


IVoodcarving 

carving,  and  parts  of  the  ground  exposed,  it  is  not 
necessary  in  this  style  to  rout  or  clean  them  out  to  a 
level  surface.  A  broken  ground,  providing  it  is  cleanly 
cut  and  not  woolly,  has  an  advantage  of  its  own, 
adds  richness  to  the  pattern,  and  does  not  have  such 
a  laboured  appearance.    The  use  of  the  punch  should 


iiUk  HlWW^hMMil 


FIG.    8. BOOK    RACK    END,    WITH    CARVED 

ORNAMENT    BASED    ON    MAPLE    LEAF 


be  avoided,  as  it  is  in  many  cases  only  an  excuse, 
or  at  least  a  veil,  to  hide  untidy  work. 

This  lesson,  being  an  example  of  method  only, 
a  type  of  leaf  has  been  chosen  (in  this  case  the  maple, 
Fig.  7)  which  lends  itself  to  variations  in  form.  The 
upper  part  can  be  elongated,  and  other  alterations 
made  if  the  main  characteristics  are  retained. 

The  finished  leaf  as  described  is  not  a  mere  exercise, 


Gothic  Forms 


but  may  be  used  in  many  ways,  such  as  a  patera  or 
as  the  centre  for  some  small  panel. 


To  show  how  the  same  leaf  form  may  be  adapted 
in  other  ways,  a  sketch  design  for  a  book  rack  end  is 
given  at  Fig.  8.  The  leaf  is  the  same  as  that  dealt 
with,  and  the  design  suggested  might  be  used  for  other 
purposes. 


v 


II.-GOTHIC    FORMS:     BORDERS 

WITH  woodcarving,  as  with  other  crafts, 
method  plays  such  an  important  part  that, 
before  starting  on  a  fresh  piece  of  work, 
time  spent  in  thinking  out  the  general  scheme 
and  the  setting-out  is  well  spent.  Beginners 
are  apt  to  be  in  too  much  of  a  hurry  to  get  on 
to  the  finishing  stages,  but  if  the  earlier  parts  are 
rushed  the  final  stage  cannot  be  so  successful  as  would 
otherwise  be  the  case. 

At  Fig.  9  is  shown  the  design  for  a  carved  frame 
or  border,  which  may  be  flat  in  section  or  moulded 
as  indicated.  Fig.  10  indicates  how  the  pattern  is 
set  out  on  the  wood,  the  dotted  lines  guiding  the 
eye  in  the  sweep  of  the  curves.  Fig.  12  shows  the 
enlarged  detail,  and  this  illustration  (with  Fig.  13) 
forms  the  exercise  of  which  the  present  chapter 
treats. 

Border  design  (Fig.  9). — For  the  sake  of  those 
who  have  had  little  or  no  instruction  in  setting  out 
their  drawings,  the  outline  illustration,  Fig.  10,  has 
been  introduced.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
illustrations  in  magazines  and  books  are  necessarily 
small,  so  that  the  ability  to  set  out  with  ease  to  a 
larger  scale  from  small  illustrations  is  very  important. 
Always  try  to  work  to  as  large  a  scale  as  the  article 
in  hand  will  allow. 

The  exercise,  Fig.  12,  should  be  drawn  by  means 
of  the  carbon  or  transfer  paper  upon  a  piece  of  pine 
about  12  in.  long,  5  in.  or  6  in.  wide,  and  J  in.  thick. 
This  will  allow  a  fair  margin  of  wood  at  the  sides  to 
work  against,  and  also  for  the  cramp  to  hold  on  to 
without  doing  damage. 

The  former  exercise  (Fig.   1)  consisted  of  more  or 

10 


Gothic  Forms:  Borders 


I  IG.  9. GOTHIC  BORDF.R. 

FLAT    or    moulded     in 

SECTION 


FIG.    10. METHOD    OF 

SETTING    OUT    FIG.    \\ 


11 


IVoodcarving 

less  circular  cuts  or  sweeps  of  the  gouge,  but  in  Fig.  12 
we  have  longer  and  more  subtle  curves.  Presuming 
that  the  main  lines,  as  in  the  upper  unit,  are  drawn, 
take  the  V  tool  (F,  Fig.  11^  and  cut  along  the  curved 
leading  lines,  starting  with  a  light  and  shallow  cut. 
and  gradually  cutting  deeper  and  more  boldly  as  the 
outside   edges   are   approached.      In   the   upper   part 

A  B  C  D  E         F       G 

- .   \ -  ^^  KJ  V  U 

I  IN.  £  IN.  }  IN.  |  IN.  I  IN.       ft  IN.  |  IN. 

FIG.    11. — SET   OF   SEVEN    CARVING    TOOLS 

A,  Chisel  ;    B  and  C,  Flat  Gouges  ;    D  and  E,  Bent  Gouges  ; 
F,  V-Tool  ;    G,  Veiner. 

(Fig.  12)  we  have  thus  a  cut  or  cuts  which,  starting 
from  the  left  hand,  sweep  out  and  finish  towards  the 
right.  In  the  lower  half  the  positions  are  reversed, 
but  the  work  should  be  done  (if  the  grain  of  the  wood 
will  allow  of  it)  while  the  wood  is  fixed  in  the  same 
position.  Thus  two  very  useful  exercises  of  wrist 
play  are  given,  one  to  the  right,  the  other  to  the  left. 
The  deeper  of  these  V  cuts  should  be  at  least  §  in. 
deep,  and  at  the  finish  of  this  first  part  the  upper  part 
of  the  block  should  present  the  appearance  of  the 
upper  unit  of  Fig.  12. 

Now  take  the  gouges,  B  and  C  (Fig.  11)  and  set 
in  the  curved  and  rounded  lobes  shown  by  dotted 
lines.  Cut  away  the  wood  by  means  of  the  V  tool 
used  a  little  on  its  side,  or,  if  found  somewhat  difficult 
to  use,  the  chisel  (A)  will  do.  It  must  be  understood 
that  this  lesson  will  not  be  satisfactory  unless  both 
units  are  worked.  The  carving  tools  (of  whatever 
pattern)  are  held  with  the  right  hand  grasping  the 
handle,  the  left  also  holding  the  tool  but  lower  down 

12 


FIG.   12, — ENLARGED  DETAIL  OF  BORDER  DESIGN  (FIG.  10) 


IVoodcarving 


5 


and  partty  on  the  metal,  thereby  acting  as  a  brake 
or  check  upon  the  cuts.  This  should  always  be  done, 
otherwise  accidents  will  occur  and  perhaps  be  serious. 
There  should  always  be  a  feeling  of  resistance  of  left 
hand  against  the  right ;  it  is  by  this  means  that  the 
cut  is  graded  and  stopped. 

Take  the  shallow  gouges  (B  and  C)  again,  and, 
holding  them  guarded  as  suggested,  cut  the  surrace 
of  the  flat  lobes  on  cither  side  of  the  central  dotted 
line  so  that  a  ridge  with  slightly  concave  sides  is  left. 
(See  section,  Fig.  12,  lower  unit.)  This  should  bring 
the  outside  edges  of  lobes  to  within  about  1-16  in.  of 
what  will  be  the  ground.  The  upper  ends  of  the  lobes 
are  set  in  with  the  same  gouges,  according  to  the 
contour  of  the  diagram.  The  rounded  lobes  are  also 
worked  over  with  tools  B  and  C. 

All  the  cutting  should  be  made  in  as  long  and  clean 
a  sweep  as  possible,  and  this  should  be  practised  until 
it  is  accomplished  with  a  fair  amount  of  ease.  All  the 
surplus  background  can  now  be  cut  away,  and  the 
whole  gradually  cleaned  up.  The  V  tool,  which  is 
used  to  do  a  great  deal  of  the  work  in  the  above  exam- 
ple, is  rather  a  difficult  one  to  handle  and  use,  and  is 
still  more  difficult  for  the  beginner  to  sharpen  when 
blunt  or  broken.  But  it  is  an  essential  tool,  and  if 
beginners  learn  to  guard  against  slipping,  and  practise 
upon  a  spare  piece  of  wood,  they  should  not  take  long 
to  master  it. 

Second  border  design. — Fig.  13  (the  detail 
shown  enlarged  in  Fig.  15)  is  an  exercise  of  a  different 
type,  although  the  idea  of  alternating  repeat  is  the 
same.  A  small  gouge  of  \  in.,  generally  called  a  veiner 
should  be  added  to  our  list  for  this  example  (G,  Fig.  11). 
Tracing  the  leading  lines  on  the  wood  as  before,  we 
start  this  lesson  by  cutting  all  round  the  outline  with 
the  Jin.  gouge  (E,  Fig.  11),  working  out  the  wood 
to  as  near  the  depth  of  §  in.  as  possible.  Work  care- 
fully, and  if  the  grain  should  work  up  reverse  the  cut, 

14 


Gothic  Forms:   Borders 


FIO.    13. DESIGN    FOR 

CARVED    BORDER 


TIG.    14. METHOD    OF 

SETTING    OUT    SAME 


15 


JVoodcarving 

taking  care  that  the  tools  are  sharp  and  that  the 
left  hand  is  resisting  the  right  as  before.  Try  and 
get  the  hollows  very  clean  and  neat. 

Now  take  the  Jin.  gouge,  or  veiner,  cut  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  leaf  next  to  the  stalk,  and  on  either 
side,  two  grooves  which  shall  leave  a  raised  part 
between  for  veins.  (See  sections,  Fig.  15.)  If  these 
two  tools  are  used  carefully  the  work  should  now  have 
the  appearance  of  the  upper  unit  of  Fig.  15.  The 
rounded  forms  are  then  finished  off  by  means  of  the 
flat  gouges. 

The  section  lines  showing  the  contour  of  the  surface 
should  be  carefully  studied  before  the  final  modelling  is 
done,  and  advantage  should  be  taken  of  these  sectional 
lines  to  learn  to  read  light  and  shade  for  carving 
purposes.  Attention  may  also  be  called  to  the  placing 
of  the  lines.  They  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  the 
main  sweep  or  flow  of  the  pattern.  As  in  the  former 
design  the  surplus  wood  can  be  cut  away  from  the 
sides,  but  if  the  channels  are  clean  it  would  perhaps 
look  best  left  as  it  is. 

Patterns  of  this  type  are  suitable  for  the  carved 
borders  of  picture  frames,  and  once  the  unit  is  under- 
stood and  mastered  it  becomes  an  easy  design  to  repeat. 
The  two  patterns  given  might  readily  be  adapted  on 
many  articles  of  light  furniture  which  the  reader  is 
likely  to  make. 

In  all  woodcarving  it  should  be  remembered  that 
wood  is  a  great  absorber  of  light ;  therefore  it  is 
better  to  cut  on  the  deep  side  than  otherwise,  a  good 
contrast  of  light  and  dark  being  very  helpful  to  a 
rich  effect. 

A  well  known  law  in  ornament  is  that  decoration 
or  carving  placed  upon  a  moulding  should  suggest 
the  contour  of  the  moulding,  therefore  these  two 
patterns  and  others  based  on  the  same  principle  are 
suitable  for  sections  such  as  those  indicated  in  Figs. 
9  and  13. 

16 


no.  15. — :;>  jlakged  detail  of  border  design  (fig.  If)) 


tVoodcarving 

As  an  alternative,  should  any  difficulty  be  found 
in  executing  these  exercises  by  means  of  the  V  tool 
and  veiner,  their  outlines  can  be  set  in  by  means  of 
the  different  gouges,  and  the  modelling  afterwards 
carried  out  as  already  suggested. 


CARVED    TABLE 


18 


III.— GOTHIC    FORMS:    THE 
TREFOIL 

THE  subject  of  this  third  lesson  in  woodcarving 
is  the  Gothic  rendering  of  the  trefoil,  used  with 
so  much  power  and  good  taste  during  the  early- 
English  period  of  architecture.  It  is  not,  of 
course,  used  here  with  so  much  strength  and 
vigour  as  in  our  churches,  because  its  uses  are 
different.  Were  we  going  to  execute  a  carved  cap  or 
capital  in  the  round,  it  would  be  another  matter  ; 
the  relief  would  be  greater  and  more  force  and  go  could 
be  given  to  it.  Anyhow,  it  is  desirable  to  attempt  to 
obtain  some  of  this  feeling  in  lower  relief  work ; 
therefore  we  are  going  to  ask  that  the  carver  should 
cut  a  little  deeper  than  the  proportions  set  out  in  these 
illustrations  if  the  wood  being  used  will  allow  of  it. 
The  depth  in  this  style  should  as  a  rule  be  at  least 
|  in. 

In  the  illustration,  Fig.  16,  we  have  a  sprig  or 
spray  so  arranged  that  we  can  look  upon  it  as  a  unit 
to  be  used  in  a  variety  of  ways  as  it  may  please  the 
carver.  For  examples,  note  Figs.  19,  20,  21,  and  22. 
It  will  always  be  found  that,  if  the  unit  is  carefully 
studied  and  as  carefully  cut,  its  repetition  will  be  an 
easy  matter.  However  complicated  many  designs 
may  appear  to  be  at  first  sight,  on  looking  into  them 
we  find  the  constant  repetition  of  the  unit  in  slightly 
varying  form.  Grasp  the  motive,  and  half  the  diffi- 
culty is  over.  Thus,  make  a  tracing  or  drawing  of 
this  spray,  then  transfer  it  in  alternate  positions,  side 
by  side,  etc.,  and  you  will  probably  be  surprised  at 
the  number  of  patterns  and  designs  that  can  be 
obtained  from  it.  See  the  setting  out  of  leading  fines 
in  these  diagrams  and  in  Fig.  22. 

19 


Woodcarving 

Carving  the  trefoil. — To  commence  the  exercise, 
the  tracing  having  been  made,  take  the  parting  or 


FIG.    16. — EXAMPLE  OF  TREFOIL  SPRAY,  TO   BE   USED   AS 
A    UNIT    IN    DESIGN 

V  tool  (F,  Fig.  23)  and  cut  away  the  ground  upon  and 
around  the  lobes  as  shown  in  the  working  illustration, 
Fig.  18.    See  the  upper  leaf ;    all  the  parts  should  be 

20 


Gothic  Forms:    The  Trefoil 


■A—  .      —   4'VS  — 


FIG.    17. OUTLINE 

FORM    OF    FIG.    i<> 


FIG.     18. SETTING     IN    OF 

FIG.    10 


FIG.    19. BORDER    ADAPTATION    OF    THE    TREFOIL. 


FIG.    20. PEDIMENT    ADAPTATION    OF    THE    TREFOIL, 

21 


IVoodcarving 

treated  in  this  way  first.  In  most  woodcarving  setting 
in  (or  stabbing  as  it  is  called)  prevents  any  alteration, 
even  if  desirable,  owing  to  the  wood  being  pierced  to 
too  great  a  depth,  and  so  marking  the  ground.  This 
is  therefore  another  good  reason  why  the  V  tool  or 
gouges  are  preferable.  If  we  are  carving  in  hard  wood, 
and  the  setting-in  method  is  adopted,  a  mallet  is 
necessary.  This  should  be  fairly  heavy,  and  of  the 
usual  pattern  for  carvers.  But  mallets  should  be  used 
as  little  as  possible  ;  they  are  bad  for  the  tools,  and 
the  work  as  well,  if  over  used. 

The  ground  having  been  cut  away  in  the  form  of 
valleys  or  grooves  all  round  the  leaves,  round  off  the 
lobes  and  the  raised  part  in  the  centre  of  each  lobe 
by  means  of  the  gouges  B  and  C  (Fig.  23),  taking 
particular  care  to  correctly  read  the  sections  marked 
in  the  diagram,  Fig.  18.  These  sections  are  supposed 
to  be  cut  vertically  downwards  at  right  angles  to  the 
flow  of  the  leading  lines  and  the  lobes.  This  system 
is  a  very  useful  one,  and  is  known  as  the  rectangular 
or  right  angle  system,  the  cutting  of  section  always 
being  at  that  angle  to  the  flow  of  line.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  keep  one  side  of  the  lobe  or  leaf  higher  than 
the  other,  as  shown  in  these  sections  and  in  Fig.  16, 
so  as  to  give  a  good  grip  or  twist  to  the  stalks  and  leaves. 
It  is  also  essential  that  the  cuts  should  be  as  long  and 
sweeping  as  possible,  especially  in  the  side  cuts  of  the 
stalks.  To  get  these  nice  and  clean  the  tools  should 
be  well  stropped  and  kept  sharp.  Work  in  a  side 
light,  from  the  left  if  possible,  as  the  light  and  shade 
of  your  work  will  then  help  you.  Keep  your  cutting 
as  in  A,  Fig.  18,  and  according  to  the  sections;  it  will 
make  all  the  difference  between  weak  and  strong  work. 

When  you  have  got  thus  far,  take  the  gouge  (D, 
Fig.  28)  and  hollow  in  the  sides  of  the  leaf  stalks  a 
little  (see  B,  Fig.  18) ;  this  will  give  a  better  effect  in 
light  and  shade. 

22 


Gothic  Forms:    The  Trefoil 


FIG.  21. — PANEL  DESIGN  MADE  UP  OF  THE  TREFOIL  UNIT 

(SEE    FIG.    16) 

23 


Woodcarving 

For  the  sake  of  practice  this  spray  should  not  be 
cut  smaller  than  4  in.  by  6 J  in.,  and  it  would  be  a 
good  exercise  to  place  two  or  more  in  any  chosen 
position,  working  them  as  a  simple  design.  An  exact 
copy  or  repeat  is  not  at  all  necessary  (or  at  all  likely 
to  be  obtained)  in  woodcarving.  What  should  be  aimed 
at  is  to  emphasise  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  leaf 
in  hand,  and  not  to  outrage  nature  in  the  treatment. 


FIG.   22. 


-OUTLINE    SUGGESTIONS    FOR    ADAPTATION    OF 
THE    GOTHIC   TREFOIL    FORM 


Additional  tools. — Supposing  that  you  wish  to 
carve  a  panel  based  upon  this  example,  and  that  it 
will  be  necessary  to  clear  up  and  cut  away  the  back- 
ground, three  tools,  in  addition  to  those  shown  in 
Fig.  23,  should  be  obtained,  two  of  them  being  bent 
chisels  (one  §  in.,  the  other  \  in.)  and  a  macaroni  tool 
of  3-16  in.  The  bent  chisels  are  useful  and  suitable 
for  cleaning  up  the  ground.  They  can  be  used  at  a 
very  slight   angle,    owing  to   the  bend,   and    thus  a 

24 


Gothic  Forms:    The  Trefoil 

shallow  cut  can  be  taken  where  necessary.  The 
macaroni  tool  is  like  a  bent  chisel  with  vertical  sides, 
something  like  a  small  coal  shovel  or  scoop.  When 
well  sharpened  and  in  good  order  it  makes  a  nice 
clean  rectangular  cut  at  the  junction  of  the  carving 
with  the  ground.     (See  Fig.  24.) 

A  B  C  D  E  F        G 

- -  -  w  w  V  u 

\  IX.        \  IX.     f  IX.      |  IX.     £  IN.  ^  IX.  |  IX. 
FIG.  23. SET  OF  SEVEN  CARVING  TOOLS 

A,  Chisel ;  B  and  C,  Flat  Gouges  ;  D  and  E,  Bent  Gouges  ; 
F,  V-Tool  ;    G,  Veiner. 


II 


u 


|  IX.  BEXT   £  IX.  BEXT  MACARONI 
CHISEL       CHISEL       TOOL 

FIG.  24. — THREE  XEW  TOOLS 


The  examples  illustrated  of  the  application  of 
this  unit  to  fill  given  forms  or  shapes  are  only  intended 
to  give  a  lead  and  are  not  for  any  particular  purpose, 
but  it  is  hoped  that  interested  readers  of  this  book 
will  endeavour  to  make  patterns  by  arrangement  and 
alteration,  as  it  is  this  which  makes  all  the  difference 
between  mere  copying  and  intelligent  work — between 
man  and  a  machine.  Should  a  part  of  the  lobe  be  cut 
off  by  mistake,  or  due  to  an  accident,  cut  it  again 
according  to  what  may  be  left  of  it.  Some  parts  may 
almost  sink  into  the  ground,  and  yet  the  effect  may 
be  good  ;  only  thought  must  be  given  to  the  matter 
and  there  should  be  reason  in  every  cut. 

25 


JVoodcarving 

In  sharpening  and  using  the  gouges  do  not  let 
them  become  too  pointed,  that  is,  the  centre  projecting 
beyond  the  sides.  It  is  enough  to  take  just  a  little 
off  these  sides  or  corners  ;  to  unduly  do  so  causes 
the  centre  to  cut  and  mark  the  wood  before  the  sides 
are  engaged  at  all.  Any  of  the  ordinary  woods  used  in 
carving  will  do  for  these  exercises,  but  the  best  soft 
wood  for  beginners  is  pine.  Of  hard  woods,  walnut 
and  oak  are  suitable,  but  American  oak,  unless  picked 
out  by  an  experienced  man,  should  be  avoided,  as  it 
is  apt  to  be  fibrous 


DESIGN    FOB   KEY  PACK 


26 


IV.— HOW  TO  CARVE  THE 
ACANTHUS  LEAF 

IN  dealing  with  the  acanthus  leaf  in  its  simpler 
form,  we  may  leave  for  the  moment  all  suggestion 
of  Gothic  feeling  in  the  carving  and  attempt  only 
to  retain  the  boldness  of  cutting.  With  this  form 
we  enter  into  a  rich  field  of  modelling  and  orna- 
mentation, known  as  the  Renaissance  style.  The 
foliage  of  this  period  was  all  more  or  less  based  upon 
variations  of  the  acanthus,  which,  although  partly 
derived  from  a  natural  leaf,  has  been  so  altered  to 
suit  certain  conditions  that  it  can  be  best  styled  as 
conventional.  Some  of  its  different  treatments  will 
be  given  in  the  course  of  these  articles. 

The  leaf  (Fig.  27)  should  be  cut  from  a  piece  of 
wood  9  in.  by  7  in.  by  1 J  in.,  in  pine  for  early  practice, 
in  oak  or  walnut  if  to  be  made  up  afterwards.  The 
pattern  should  as  usual  be  traced  on  the  wood  with 
carbon  paper.  Then,  the  wood  being  held  firmly  by 
means  of  the  cramp,  or  a  bench  holdfast,  the  outline 
of  the  pipes  and  eyes  (A  and  B,  Fig.  27)  set  in.  It 
is  not  much  use  putting  any  detail  upon  the  wood  at 
this  stage,  as  it  will  probably  be  cut  away.  Now  take 
the  f  in.  gouge  (D,  Fig.  28),  after  the  upper  part  of 
the  lobes  have  been  set  in,  as  at  Fig.  25,  A,  and  cut 
across  the  grain  to  the  setting  in  of  the  pipes  and  eyes  ; 
leave  concave  spaces  as  shown.  A  space  should  first 
of  all  be  cleared  from  around  the  pipes  and  eyes  by 
means  of  the  V  tool,  and  the  £  in.  gouge.  Details  of 
how  to  free  these  forms  (the  pipes  and  eyes)  from  the 
wood  need  not  be  repeated.  Working  outwards  from 
the  main  or  central  stem,  the  wood  should  have  the 
appearance  of  Fig.  25,  with  a  section  similar  to  that 

27 


tVoodcarving 

shown.  After  this  set  in  by  means  of  the  flat  gouges 
or  the  parting  tool  the  whole  of  the  containing  lines 
of  the  pattern  (not  the  smaller  lobes),  and  cut  the  wood 
away  according  to  the  lie  of  the  grain,  making  bold 


A  B 

FIG.   25. ACANTHUS    LEAF  ;     FIRST    STAGE 


clean  hollowing  cuts  with  gouges  B,  C,  and  D  (Fig.  28) 
according  to  the  contour  until  it  has  somewhat  the 
appearance  of  Fig.  25,  B. 


28 


How  to  Carve  the  Acanthus  Leaf 

The  curve  and  shape  of  a  table  spoon  (only  shallower, 
see  Fig.  29)  gives  a  fair  idea  of  this  hollow.  It  should 
be  noted  that,  while  the  spoon  shape  is  symmetrical, 
the  lobes  are  not,  and  also  that  a  spoon,  as  it  lies  on 


^^?2^^^^^^^^^^g^^^^^^ 


C  D 

FIG.    26. — SECOND    STAGE    IN    CARVING    ACANTHUS    LEAF 


a  surface,  is  much  undercut.  In  the  case  of  these  lobes 
or  main  divisions,  it  is  better  to  have  very  little  (if 
any)  undercutting  ;    if  done  at  all,  the  undercutting 


29 


JVoodcarving 

should  be  left  to  the  last  stage.  The  section  in  black 
line  on  the  half  marked  Fig.  25b  should  be  a  good 
guide,  but  all  the  stages  mentioned  should  be  gone 
through  in  their  proper  order  so  as  to  get  into  a  good 
method. 


FIG.  27. — PATTERN  OF  ACANTHUS  LEAF  FOR 
SETTING  OUT 


D      E    F   G 

K^   V  U 


ilN.         £lN.      f  IN.      |  IN.     £lN.  ^  IN.  |  IN. 
FIG.  28. — SET  OF  SEVEN  CARVING  TOOLS 


A,  Chisel ;  B  and  C,  Flat  Gouges  ;  D  and  E,  Bent  Gouges  ; 
F,  V-Tool  ;    G,  Veiner 

When  the  whole  of  the  leaf  has  been  cut  so  that 
it  appears  on  both  sides  of  the  mid  rib  to  have  the 
appearance  of  Fig.  25,  B,  take  the  gouges  B  and  C, 
and  set  in  the  smaller  lobes  as  in  Fig.  26,  C.  It  is 
assumed  that  the  upper  part  of  the  leaf  has  been 

30 


How  to  Carve  the  Acanthus  Leaf 

modelled  by  means  of  the  carving  tools  so  that  it 
has  the  appearance  of  Fig.  25,  B  (see  vertical  section 
of  the  top  lobe). 

The  carving  should  now  be  examined  to  see  that 
the  general  section  or  side  view  is  as  Fig.  26,  C,  with 
the  lobes  slightly  raised.  Take  the  gouges  D  and  E 
and  cut  out,  by  means  of  as  long  and  clean  sweeps  of 
the  tool  as  possible,  the  smaller  hollows  of  the  lesser 


FIG.   29. — SPOON 

FORM 


FIG.    29A. — SPOON 
FORM,   CARVED 


lobes,  bringing  the  tool  to  the  surface  according  to 
the  smallness  or  shallowness  of  the  hollow.  Fig.  29 
(the  spoon  form)  gives  an  idea  of  this  stage  of  the  work. 
These  small  lobes,  in  fact,  are  hollows  within  a  main 
hollow  ;  the  ridges  that  rise  between  them  are  im- 
portant and  should  be  kept  as  straight  and  true  as 
possible  along  the  very  subtle  curves  they  form.  It 
is  better  to  work  from  the  inside  outwards  to  the 
border,  gradually  increasing  the  depth  and  width  of 
the  hollows  until  the  tool  is  raised  to  finish  the  top 
of  lobe. 

Adaptation  of  the  acanthus. — In  the  sketch  of  a 
flower-pot  stand  or  holder  (Fig.  30)  the  left  face  is 
shown  with  the  mid  rib  nearly  straight.    At  the  right 

81 


IVoodcarving 

side  it  is  modelled  on  a  curve  ;  either  way  would  do 
according  to  the  wishes  of  the  carver,  but  both  ways 
must  not  be  used  upon  the  same  article  as  in  our  sketch, 
which  is  given  merely  to  show  the  two  effects.     In 


IIG.   30. FLOWER-POT   STAND,   SHOWING   STRAIGHT   AND 

CURVED    TREATMENTS    OF   ACANTHUS    LEAF 


no  carving  do  long  clean  sweeps  tell  with  such  effect 
as  in  the  acanthus  leaf  hollows.  They  should  be  shell- 
like and  hold  a  very  valuable  grading  of  light  and  shade 
which  is  the  chief  value  of  this  stvlc.     It  is  difficult 


32 


How  to  Carve  the  Acanthus  Leaf 

without  a  multiplication  of  drawings  to  give  a  true 
description  of  the  contours,  but  in  that  matter  the 
carver  must  think  for  himself  as  he  goes  along,  and 
also  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  of  examining 
good   examples,   of  which  there  are  many.      These, 


FIG.    31. — BASE    OF    FLOWER-POT    STAND 


Eb 


FIG.  32. — OUTLINE   SUGGESTION  FOR  WINDOW  BOX  WITH   CARVED 

ACANTHUS    LEAF 


although  often  rich  and  complicated,  are  in  the  first 
place  set  out  on  a  very  simple  plan  and  section. 
Leaves,  etc.,  of  the  conventional  acanthus  type  are 
so  largely  used  in  architectural  and  other  work  that 
it  is  well  worth  giving  the  matter  very  careful  study. 
In  the  matter  of  learning  to  carve  properly  it  is 
much  better  for  beginners  to  keep  their  work  on  the 

33  d 


IVoodcarving 

simple  side  and  obtain  broad  effects  than  to  attempt 
elaboration  in  the  way  of  detail.  To  take  this  leaf  as 
an  example,  it  would  be  satisfactory  if  the  carving 
was  left  in  the  state  of  main  lobes  only  as  in  Fig.  25,  B. 
This  would  be  suitable  for  a  carved  pattern  for  a  window 
box,  a  simple  vertical  treatment  of  a  border,  and  for 
many  other  purposes. 

If  the  illustrated  flower-pot  holder  were  carried 
out  it  should  be  lined  with  zinc  and  have  arrangements 
to  hold  the  water  draining  from  the  plant.  This 
would  be  an  easy  matter  with  but  a  slight  knowledge 
of  woodwork.  The  mitres  should  be  well  joined  and 
tongued  together,  and  a  good  bottom  of  at  least  \  in. 
stuff  added.  For  window  boxes  separate  slabs  can  be 
carved  and  then  fastened  into  a  framework. 

It  is  of  great  importance  that  sufficient  care  should 
be  taken  to  keep  on  the  outside  of  all  setting-out  lines 
in  this  example,  as  any  slight  difference  in  the  propor- 
tion and  symmetry  of  the  lobes  would  be  noticeable. 
This  must  always  be  so  in  symmetrically  arranged 
objects  ;  therefore  allow  in  full  and  have  a  little  wood 
to  true  up  afterwards.  The  eyes  of  pipes  should  be 
sunk  in  to  a  fair  depth,  appearing  as  dark  spots. 


34 


V.— ANOTHER  FORM  OF  LEAF 

iHE  details,  Figs.  33  and  34,  are  units  to  be 
carved  on  a  somewhat  similar  plan  to  the 
former  exercises,  except  that  there  is  a  more 
subtle  play  of  form  or  modelling.  After  setting 
in  the  outline,  or  shaping  the  same  with  a  veiner 
or  a  parting  tool,  the  leaves  should  be  modelled 


FIG.    83. FIRST    EXERCISE 


up  with  the  flatter  gouges,  B,  C,  D.  (Fig.  28.)  The 
drawing  of  (or  setting  out)  with  the  Jin.  veiner,  G, 
is  a  good  method,  using  this  tool  to  mark  in  all  the 
drawing,  including  the  cuts,  and  suggesting  thickness 


85 


Woodcannng 

to  the  edge  of  lobes.  A  gouge  of  this  type,  or  slightly 
larger,  should  be  used  to  make  the  first  hollows  on 
either  side  of  the  main  stalks  or  veins.  Personally 
the  writer  always  prefers  a  deep  gouge  to  a  parting 
tool,  as  the  angle  at  the  base  of  a  deep  cutting  V-tool 
is  sometimes  unpleasant  to  look  at.  A  deep  hollow 
is  never  so,  and  can  always  be  opened  out  without 


FIG.    34. SECOND    EXERCISE 


much  trouble  if  necessary.  Concave  surfaces  are 
fairly  easy  to  cut  to  a  required  shape  compared  with 
convex  when  using  gouges,  as  any  slight  lowering  of 
the  wrist  releases  the  tool  by  forcing  the  cut  upwards  ; 
but  when  gouges  are  used  with  their  corners  down- 
wards, and  following  the  convex  surface,  it  requires 
care  to  prevent  the  ends  from  digging  in.     This  can 

36 


Another  Form  of  Leaf 

be  prevented  by  using  fairly  flat  gouges,  such  as  B,  C, 
and  D,  or  even  a  chisel. 

It  will  be  noticed  on  looking  at  the  sections  marked 
on  Figs.  33  and  34,  that  they  have  a  tendency  towards 
the  ogee  or  cyma  reversa  form.  This  is  a  useful  con- 
tour to  use,  giving  both  concave  and  convex  cutting 
as  mentioned  above.  It  is  wise  to  keep  the  outside 
and  upper  edges  as  high  as  possible.     These  higher 


FIG.    35. APPLICATION    OF    DESIGN    OF    FIG.    33 


parts  should  be  from  J  in.  to  \  in.  from  the  general 
ground  level,  and  in  these  examples  it  would  be  as 
well  if  all  the  cutting  were  reduced  to  as  few  individual 
cuts  as  possible.  Thus  if,  in  trying  to  get  a  good  and 
clean  sweeping  cut  along  the  flow  of  leaf,  it  is  found 
that  the  grain  picks  up  against  the  tool,  reverse  the 
cut,  but  let  the  cuts  if  possible  be  equal  in  fullness 
so  as  to  appear  as  one  cut.  Although  it  can  be  over- 
done, there  is  no  objection  in  going  over  roughed-out 

37 


Woodcarving 

work  and  reducing  the  planes  or  facets  into  broader 
looking  surfaces. 

Work  as  illustrated  should  not  be  cut  lower  in 
relief  than  that  shown.  It  is  better  to  err  on  the  other 
side  and  cut  deeper.  It  will  be  noticed  as  the  work 
proceeds  that  a  cut  or  cuts  intended  for  f  in.  or  \  in. 


FIG.    36. PATTERN    OF    FIG.    «S3    SET    IN    AND 

GROUND   CUT   AWAY 


deep,  and  looking  so  at  first  sight,  are  found  to  be  less 
than  either  when  gauged. 

It  is  hard  to  refrain,  when  a  pattern  is  marked 
out  upon  the  wood,  from  setting  in  the  minor  division 
or  lobes,  but  it  is  a  mistake  to  do  so.  These  should 
be  cut  as  at  A,  Fig.  33,  in  the  first  instance.  This 
rule  should  always  be  followed  ;   it  is  good  in  method, 

38 


Another  Form  of  Leaf 

as  it  enables  alteration  should  a  better  division  or 
cutting  up  suggest  itself  while  the  work  is  in  progress. 
In  exercise,  Fig.  34,  the  group  of  lobes  is  left  in  a 
simple  form,  and  the  carver  is  advised  to  attempt  to 
further  sub-divide  them  as  may  suit  his  fancy,  care 
being  taken  not  to  overdo  it. 


FIG.    87. — PATTERN    OF   FIG.    34   SET    IN    AND 
GROUND    CUT    AWAY 


When  the  edges  of  lobes  are  under  treatment  it  is 
as  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  it  adds  variety  and  charm 
to  the  carving  if  the  edges  are  a  little  varied — that  is, 
splayed  or  cut  at  different  angles  to  the  ground. 
This  varies  the  light  and  shade  and  also  the  width  of 
line. 

39 


Woodcarving 

t 

Corner  ornaments  such  as  these,  when  made  up  with 
floral  forms,  are  (generally  speaking)  best  kept  higher 
in  the  centre  and  running  down  towards  the  ground 
at  their  outside  edges,  as  they  probably  would  do  in 
nature. 

Adaptations. — In  earlier  chapters  there  have  been 
given  a  few  suggestions  on  applying  these  units  (as 
we  might  call  them)  in  different  ways  to  form  patterns 
for  various  purposes.  As  it  may  appear  at  first  sight 
that  this  is  a  question  of  design,  and  not  carving  only, 
it  should  be  understood  that  true  carving  is  not  the 
exact  rendering  of  a  copy  or  drawing  alone,  but  a 
treatment,  although  limited  by  the  tool  used,  that 
should  show  the  individuality  and  character  of  the 
worker.  No  two  workers  carve  exactly  alike,  and  this 
is  an  advantage  which  gives  a  personal  feeling  or 
character.  The  drawings,  Figs.  33  and  34,  which  we 
have  been  describing,  are  parts  of  a  more  elaborate 
piece  of  work  which  it  is  intended  to  deal  with  in 
another  exercise. 

These  corner  patterns  can  be  applied  to  almost 
any  rectangular  spacing,  and  the  value  of  the  lesson 
lies  in  the  cutting  which  shows  the  varied  modelling. 
A  box  top  has  been  shown  in  Fig.  35  carved  in  lower 
relief.  The  design  would  also  do  for  decoration  of  a 
small  table. 

The  proper  and  more  satisfactory  form  of  study 
would  oe  to  carve  each  unit  according  to  instructions, 
and  to  a  fairly  large  scale  ;  then,  when  that  is  finished 
in  a  more  or  less  satisfactory  manner,  to  apply  the 
knowledge  gained  in  cutting,  etc.,  to  some  actual 
piece  of  work. 

Both  the  examples,  Figs.  33  and  34,  should  have 
the  ground  cut  away  to  a  fairly  level  surface  by  means 
of  the  bent  chisel  and  macaroni  tool.  In  levelling 
down  this  background — if  the  grain  allows  it — cut 
away  from  the  leaves  or  lobes  towards  the  outside  ; 

40 


Another  Form  of  Leaf 

otherwise,  should  the  tool  slip,  the  lobes  may  be  dug 
into  and  damaged. 

Figs.  36  and  37  are  sketches  showing  the  appearance 
of  the  wood  with  the  pattern  set  in  and  the  ground 
cut  away  before  commencing  the  modelling. 


LEAF  TREATMENT  OX  A  PEDIMENT 


41 


42 


VI.— A   CARVED    FRAME 

OPPOSITE  is  shown  a  mirror  frame  with  the 
corners  treated  with  the  unit  given  in  the  last 
chapter.  This  frame  should  be  of  a  fair  size  in 
order  to  get  the  carving  bold,  and  no  carving 
should  be  commenced  until  practice  has  been 
had  in  cutting  some  of  the  units  upon  separate 
pieces  of  wood.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  carving  to 
be  executed  upon  a  flat  surface  ;  indeed,  a  better 
effect  (and  a  useful  exercise)  will  result  if  the  wood  is 
first  shaped  as  in  the  section  shown  at  Fig.  43. 

As  exercises  only,  any  part  of  the  above  pattern 
that  was  not  treated  in  the  last  chapter  would  be 
useful.  Supposing  that  the  mirror  frame  has  been 
made  up,  and  that  we  have  transferred  the  pattern  to 
the  surface  of  the  wood,  run  the  J  in.  gouge  or  veiner 
round  the  outline,  or,  if  preferred,  set  in.  In  this 
latter  case  care  must  be  taken  not  to  dig  down  too 
deep,  as  some  parts  flow  over  the  others.  It  is  advisable 
to  start  cutting  from  the  base  of  the  leaves  out  towards 
what  would  be  their  upper  ends.  This  would  give 
the  sweeps  of  the  tool  a  right  direction,  and  would  be 
with  the  flow  of  veins  and  pipes. 

To  make  this  clearer,  take  for  example  the  upper 
and  centre  part  (A),  and  fix  it  firmly  down  upon  the 
bench  or  carving  board  with  its  longest  edges  parallel 
with  edge  of  bench.  Now,  leaving  a  little  over,  cut 
away  from  the  centre  part  (A)  on  both  sides,  forcing 
the  cuts  outwards  to  right  and  left,  and  along  the 
direction  taken  by  the  veins  and  pipes  of  leaves. 
The  edges  or  facets  of  the  cuts  will  then  follow  in  the 
same  direction,  and  assist  in  giving  expression  to  these 
lines  of  direction.  If  cut  properly  they  will  also  radiate 
to  a  certain  extent,  all  of  which  will  help  to  make  the 

43 


Woodcarving 

work  a  successful  piece  of  ornament.  It  is,  of  course, 
understood  that  we  are  not  always  able  to  do  this, 
owing  to  the  picking  up  of  the  grain.  When  wood 
will  not  cut  successfully  (say  towards  the  right)  the 


FIG.    39. — DETAIL    OF    UPPER    PART    OF    FRAME 


FIG.    40. — DETAIL,    SHOWING    MASS    MODELLING 

cut  can  be  reversed  along  the  same  line  of  direction, 
but  towards  the  left. 

If  the  carver  can  use  both  of  his    hands   equally, 
or  his  left  nearly  as  well  as  his  right,  it  is  a  great 

44 


A  Carved  Frame 

advantage  ;  and  to  those  who  are  really  taking  up 
woodcarving  seriously  it  may  be  added  that  this 
acquirement  saves  a  great  deal  of  time  which  would 
otherwise  be  spent  in  moving  the  work.    Cuts  across 


FIG.    41. SIDE    DETAIL 

(FIRST    STAGE) 


FIG.    42. SIDE    DETAIL 

(SECOND  stage) 


the  flow  of  line  in  the  direction  of  line  B  (see  diagram 
Fig.  39)  would  have  to  be  faced  over  or  cut  out  with 
very  shallow  or  light  cuts,  otherwise  the  flow  of  line 
would  be  broken  up,  and  much  of  the  effect  would 


45 


IVoodcarving 

be  destroyed.  This  is  mentioned  here  as  there  will 
often  occur  cases  where,  owing  to  the  grain  or  other 
circumstances,  it  is  impossible  to  cut  in  the  most 
satisfactory  direction.     In  very  difficult  grain,  which 


FIG.    43. — SECTION    OF   SHAPED    MOULDING 


FIG.  44. — CARTOUCHE  AT  BASE  OF  FRAME,  WITH  SECTION 


often  occurs  in  odd  places,  it  is  best  to  make  two 
movements  simultaneously — a  forward  or  downward 
movement,  with  a  drawing  or  sideway  action ;  in 
fact,  a  drawing  cut,  that  of  a  knife  and  gouge 
combined.      This    latter    is    very    useful,    especially 

46 


A  Carved  Frame 

in  tender  places,  e.g.  sharp  edges  coming  across  the 
grain  and  especially  at  the  extreme  edges  or  points 
of  leaves. 

Fig.  40  is  a  drawing  representing  the  general  ap- 
pearance which  one-half  of  the  upper  part  of  frame 
should  have  after  the  wood  has  been  modelled  into 
the  general  or  principal  masses  and  lobes.  This  should 
be  very  carefully  done,  and  no  lesser  detail,  such  as 
the  final  sub-division,  etc.,  should  be  cut  until  the 
masses  have  been  rendered  as  carefully  as  the  skill 
of  the  carver  will  allow.  Fewer  section  lines  are  drawn 
on  these  examples,  as  it  should  be  easier  for  the  student 
to  read  the  contour  now  that  several  examples  have 
been  given  in  former  exercises. 

Figs.  41  and  42  are  renderings  of  the  side  leaves 
in  two  stages,  Fig.  41  consisting  of  the  main  lobes 
only.  Sections  are  shown  upon  them  in  one  place 
only  ;  the  contour  otherwise  should  be  read  at  sight. 
A  section  is  also  given  of  the  cartouche  at  the  base 
of  frame.    (Fig.  44.) 

A  piece  of  close  grained  walnut  would  be  a  good 
wood  for  this  mirror  frame. 

There  are  a  good  many  ways  of  rendering  the 
patterns  applied  to  frames  of  this  type.  After  the 
carving  has  been  done  parts  of  the  ground  can  be  cut 
or  fretted  away.  This  was  often  done  during  the 
middle  Renaissance  period,  and  some  charming  results 
were  obtained  ;  but  as  it  can  easily  be  overdone  great 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  cut  out  too  much.  The 
more  satisfactory  way  is  to  treat  the  edges  or  outside 
only.  None  of  this  cutting  out  should  be  done  until 
the  carving  has  been  completed,  as  it  lessens  the 
resistance  of  the  wood,  and  parts  would  be  liable  to 
break  away. 

In  treating  the  leaves  of  the  unsymmetrical  acanthus, 
such  as  this  example,  the  tools  must  be  well  looked 

4,1 


Woodcarving 

to.  The  pointed  and  narrow  character  of  the  lobes 
will  need  a  lot  of  care  when  the  ends  are  being  reached. 
A  blunt  tool  combined  with  too  much  force  would 
probably  result  in  a  regrettable  break. 


DESIGN    bX>&    CAitVED    BRACKET 


43 


VII.-THE  DECORATION  OF 
PICTURE  AND  MIRROR  FRAMES 

T  is  often  desired  to  make,  for  some  particular 
purpose,  a  frame  that  is  of  more  value  and  is 
also  more  ornamental  than  the  ordinary  run  of 
moulded  frame.  Now,  if  old  and  valuable  carved 
frames  are  examined,  it  will  be  found  that  they 
are  made  up  of  several  parts.     That  is^  a  moulding 


FIG.     45. METHOD     OF     AXTLYING     CARVED     MITRE 

CORNERS    TO    MIRROR    OR   PICTURE    FRAME 

of  suitable  form  was  put  together  in  the  usual  way 
with  mitred  corners,  after  which  it  was  usual  to 
apply  covering  pieces  to  be  carved,  like  Fig.  45. 


49 


K 


JVoodcarvhig 

This  method  was  economical  where  large  pictures 
or  mirrors  were  to  be  framed.  It  was  also  on  these 
lines  that  the  richly  gilded  frames  of  the  eighteenth 
and  nineteenth  centuries  were  manufactured,  only  in 
many  cases  gesso  or  corner  transfers  were  used  instead 


FIG.    46. — COMPLETE    CORNER    (CARVED)    OF    FIG.    45, 

SHOWING    SECTION    OF    FRAME    WITH    INWARD    SLOPE. 

ALTERNATIVE   SECTIONS    ARE    SHOWN    AT    a   AND    6 


of  carving.  At  Figs.  45,  46,  and  49,  several  different 
sections  arc  given,  but  the  general  principle  was  the 
same.  One  system  (a  good  one)  was  mostly  followed  ; 
the  corner  or  mitre  was  covered  in  its  leading  part  by 
a  radiating  or  shell-like  form,  being  symmetrical  and 
complete  in  itself. 

50 


The  Decoration  of  Picture  Frames 

This  object  makes  an  excellent  tie  for  the  corners. 
The  method  shown  is  principally  for  frames  of 
a  large  size.  Fewer  parts  and  carving  from  the  solid 
is  the  rule  for  smaller  frames.  If  the  moulding  has 
a  clay  pattern  taken  from  the  corner  so  as  to  give  the 


fig.  47  FIG,  48 

ENLARGED      DETAIL      OF      CARVED      CORNERS,      SHOWING 
FIRST,    SECOND,    AND    FINAL   STAGES 


required  shape  for  the  underneath  part  of  the  carved 
corner  it  should  not  be  a  difficult  matter  to  fit  these 
corner  pieces.  If  preferred,  the  raised  part  can  be 
removed  from  the  moulding  and  a  rectangular  sectional 
piece  of  wood  can  be  used  to  cover  the  mitre. 


51 


Woodcarving 

These  ideas,  which  are  taken  from  frames  now 
known  as  antique,  give  a  wide  field  of  usefulness. 
The  number  of  different  designs  that  can  be  got  out 
on  this  basis  is  unlimited.     In  Fig.  45  a  rigidly  geo- 


fig.  49a. 


SIMPLE    FORM    OF    CORNER 
ORNAMENT 


FIG.   49.- 
CARVING. 


-COMPLETED    CORNER,    WITH    SECTION    BEFORE 
THE  SECTION  SHOWS  SLOPE  TOWARDS  OUTSIDE 
EDGE    OF    FRAME 


metrical  outline  is  kept,  but  it  can  readily  be  under- 
stood that  it  is  possible,  in  order  to  get  a  richer  effect, 
to  cut  away  this  geometrical  outline,  leaving  the 
outside  of  the  floral  and  other  forms  to  make  a  broken 
line. 


The  Decoration  of  Picture  Frames 

We  are  not  tied  down  to  rectangular  frames,  but 
geometrical   forms    of  all  kinds   can   be   surrounded 


FIG.     50.— EXTENSION    OF    THE    MITRE-AND-JOINT-COVERING 
PRINCIPLE   TO    LOZENGE    SHAPE 


FIG.    51. EXAMPLE    IN    WHICH    THE    MITRE    OR    APPLIED 

WOOD    IS    CARRIED    TO    THE    CENTRE    OF    TWO    OR    MORE 
SIDES    OF   THE    FRAME 

in    this    manner — lozenge,    circular,    polygonal,    etc. 
(See  Fig.  50.)     Different  stages  of  the  carvings  are 

53 


IVoodcarving 

given,  and  two  kinds  of  sectional  form  :  Fig.  45, 
where  the  slope  is  inwards,  and  Fig.  49,  where  it 
slopes  towards  the  outside. 


FIG.     5iA. —  ENLARGED     DETAILS     OF     FIG.     51,     SHOWING 
FIRST   AND    LAST   STAGES 


54 


VIII.— CARVING   A   HERALDIC 
SHIELD 

OWING  to  the  revival  of  Heraldry  in  recent 
years  the  carving  of  coats  of  arms  with  the 
mantling  attached  has  become  very  popular. 
Owing  to  their  conventional  rendering  in  true 
heraldry,  these  decorations  are  particularly 
suitable  for  woodcarving.  There  is  also  an 
almost  unlimited  supply  of  good  designs  and  historic 
examples  to  be  seen  in  our  public  buildings  and 
churches,  many  in  wood,  stone,  or  metal,  others 
depicted  in  stained  glass  windows.  A  glance  at  these 
will  at  once  suggest  how  suitably  they  can  be  rendered 
with  the  carving  tool. 

Enough  has  been  done  in  the  former  exercises  to 
give  some  general  idea  of  the  treatment  of  acanthus 
foliage.  Now,  as  one  of  the  best  periods  for  our  pur- 
pose was  the  Early  Renaissance,  we  cannot  do  better 
than  suggest  a  coat  of  arms  of  that  time,  in  which 
we  shall  be  able  to  make  use  of  a  flowering  treatment 
of  the  acanthus  leaf  much  used  by  craftsmen  about 
15$0. 

This  leaf  was  developed  from  an  earlier  form  of 
mantling  suggested  by  the  flowing  plume  or  drapery 
suspended  from  the  helm  of  knights  to  distinguish 
them  during  battle  or  in  the  tourney.  Later  this 
was  rendered  in  a  label  or  scroll  form  (see  Fig.  53) ; 
but  at  the  period  of  which  we  are  treating  these 
scrolls  had  become  foliated  in  a  fanciful  treatment 
of  leaves.   (See  Fig.  52.) 

In  this  example  the  arms,  etc.,  are  carried  upon 
a  shield  form  which  should,  for  the  sake  of  boldness, 
be  10  in.  by  14  in.,  and  about  |  in.  to  1  in.  thick. 

55 


FIG.   52. HERALDIC   SHIELD 

(EARLY  RENAISSANCE) 


FIG.    53. — HERALDIC   SHIELD 
(LATER   RENAISSANCE) 


IVoodcarving 

After  being  lined  in,  the  ground  is  removed  as 
shown  in  Figs.  54  and  55.  The  aim  should  be  to  keep 
the  main  body  of  the  foliage  shallow,  or  fiat,  although 
those  parts  shown  in  relief  and  folded  over  should 
have  a  fair  projection,  say  f  in.,  in  their  highest  parts. 
The  section  lines  on  the  drawings  will  give  some  idea 
of  the  general  modelling.  The  shallow  gouges  should 
be  used  to  do  most  of  the  actual  carving,  although  the 
little  deep  hollows  at  the  termination  of  some  of  the 
lobes  will  need  a  tool  with  a  quicker  curve.  At  this 
stage  of  work  bent  gouges  of  various  forms  would 
greatly  help  to  overcome  those  little  basin-like 
hollows  that  improve  this  class  of  leaf.  That  part 
of  the  mantling  which  passes  behind  the  helmet 
should  be  cut  in  little  grooves  after  the  style  of  en- 
graving lines,  and  in  the  same  direction  and  place 
as  that  shown  in  the  illustration.  (Fig.  56.)  This 
may  be  done  either  with  a  V  or  parting  tool,  or  with 
a  veiner.  If  carefully  done  and  in  the  right  place  it 
will  be  found  to  be  very  effective,  but  it  should  be 
remembered  that  these  grooves  must  not  be  too  fine 
and  close  together  ;  a  certain  amount  of  radiation 
should  be  aimed  at.  A  shell  or  flute-like  hollow  in 
as  long  a  sweep  as  possible  would  add  to  the  effect 
of  the  foliage. 

The  shield  should  be  slightly  rounded  and  the 
charge  or  pattern  on  it  kept  flat.  That  is,  very  little 
or  no  modelling  should  be  attempted  ;  simply  cut 
the  ground  away  and  clean  up  to  the  edges  of  the 
wings,  body,  etc.,  of  the  bird. 

The  drawing  of  the  helmets  (Figs.  56,  57,  and 
58)  will  give  some  idea  of  their  shape,  and  it 
should  not  be  difficult  to  model  them  with  the 
carving  tools.  Of  course  if  one  has  a  knowledge 
of  the  elementary  principles  of  Heraldry  it  is  a 
great  help,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  very 
deep     into     the     matter,    as     the    arms    of    cities, 

58 


Carving  a  Heraldic  Shield 

boroughs,   counties,  etc.,  are  always  there  for  us  to 
copy  correctly. 

As  the  mantling  is  not  a  part  of  the  arms  proper, 


FIG.    54. — DETAIL   OF   MANTLING 


xw^\mmi 


FIG.    55. — DETAIL   OF   MANTLING 


we  can  make  use  of  any  treatment  that  best  suits 
us  so  long  as  it  is  historically  correct  in  style.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  labels  upon  which  the  motto 


59 


IVoodcarving 

is  usually  placed.     The  lettering  is  best  kept  simple 


FIG.    56. — DETAIL   OF   HELMET 
(FIG.    52) 


FIG.    57. — DETAIL   OF   HELMET 
(FIG.    53) 

in  treatment  for  carved  work.     That  shown  in  the 

60 


Carving  a  Heraldic  Shield 

illustration,  where  the  inter  spaces  only  are  cut  away 
to  the  depth  of  \  in.,  is  suitable  and  effective.  The 
tops  and  bottoms  of  the  letters  run  into  the  body 
of  the  label,  and  all  that  is  needed  are  careful  spacing 
and  a  neat  and  clean  background.  The  label  itself 
should  be  shaped  and  carved  first,  the  letters  after- 
wards. It  will  be  noticed  that  these  do  not  project 
beyond  the  general  surface,  the  fret-like  treatment 
giving  the  whole  a  light  appearance. 

The  setting  out  is  shown  in  Fig.  59.  It  would  be 
easy  to  alter  or  re-arrange  this  system  of  foliage  to 
suit  almost  any  shape,  and  it  is  also  possible  to  reduce 


FIG.  58 

ANOTHER   TYPE    OF   HEIJtfET 


FIG.    59 
SETTING    OUT   OF    DESIGN 


the  most  complicated  looking  coats  of  arms  to  simple 
lines  and  treatment  with  a  little  practice. 

In  taking  a  final  survey  we  note  the  different  pro- 
jection ;  for  example,  the  centre  of  the  visor  of  helmet 
should  be  one  of  the  parts  in  highest  relief,  and  the 
lower  part  of  the  helmet  (the  shoulder  piece),  as  it 
projects  over  the  shield,  should  be  the  highest  of  all. 

61 


JVoodcarving 

(See  Figs.  56  and  57.)  The  actual  relief  of  the  foliage 
should  be  read  from  the  drawing. 

When  the  wood  is  obtained  of  sufficient  thickness 
it  is  well  to  let  the  shield  have  a  double  curvature — 
that  is,  from  side  to  side  and  from  the  upper  part 
down  towards  the  base.  Sections  of  the  two  principal 
helmets  are  given,  and  the  serrations  of  the  acanthus 
are  shown  at  the  junction  of  the  same  with  helmet. 
(See  Fig.  56,  A)- 

The  alternative  design,  Fig.  53,  with  ribbon  mant- 
ling, is  not  so  easy  as  it  might  look,  very  careful  cutting 
and  study  of  the  subtle  curves  being  necessary  if  it  is 
to  be  made  a  success.  Fig.  58  is  another  type  of 
helmet,  mostly  used  on  borough  arms. 


HiiBALDIC    GRIFFIN 


62 


IX.— APPLICATION  OF  CARVING 
TO   FURNITURE 

1. — AN  ELIZABETHAN  OAK  CHEST 

OLD  oak  chests  with  carved  fronts  are  very 
much  in  demand,  but  the  supply  is  limited, 
and  it  often  happens  that  we  see  such  an  article 
in  the  possession  of  a  friend  which  gives  rise 
to  a  certain  amount  of  envy.  We  cannot,  of 
course,  all  possess  a  genuine  antique  that  has 
been  nicely  carved  ;    but  it  is  not  a  difficult  matter 


FIG.    60. ELIZABETHAN   CHEST 

to  make  one  for  ourselves,  and  decorate  it  with  carving 
executed  in  a  suitable  manner,  true  to  historic  tra- 
dition, so  that,  when  nicely  formed,  it  is  far  from  easy 
to  tell  it  from  the  antique. 

Many  genuine  antique  chests  are  not   really   well 
executed  as  far  as  the  carving  goes,  although  they 

63 


JVoodcarving 

always  possess  a  charm  owing  to  the  honesty  of  their 
purpose  and  the  bold  free  cutting.  They  form  welcome 
pieces  of  furniture  for  the  hall  entrance,  lobby  or 
living  room.  They  can  be  used  for  a  great  variety  of 
purposes,  as  1  nen  chests  to  holds  rugs  or  any  mis- 
cellaneous work  that  can  be  put  into  them  in  clearing 
up  a  room.  They  can  be  constructed  in  almost  any 
size.  At  one  time  they  were  pretty  common  in  the 
country  districts,  but  by  now  collectors  of  the  antique 
have  made  a  fairly  clean  sweep  of  them. 


FIG.  Cl. HALF  OF  CARVED  PANEL  OF  CHEST 


It  would  be  interesting  to  describe  the  principal 
styles  of  decoration  and  pattern,  but  this  would 
trespass  too  greatly  upon  the  space  that  should  be 
devoted  to  instruction.  We  therefore  cannot  do 
better  than  take  as  a  period  the  Elizabethan,  in 
which  excellent  results  were  obtained.  As  the  front 
of  such  an  article  as  a  chest  would  often  come  in 
contact  with  the  person  in  the  rubbing  and  brushing 
of  clothes  in  passing,  etc.,  it  stands  to  reason  that 
the  relief  should  be  low  and  the  general  surface  flat. 
Some  Elizabethan  work  was  no  more  than  \  in.  in 

64 


Application  of  Carving  to  Furniture 

relief.  A  general  and  useful  rule  is  to  have  it  about 
\  in.  to  J  in.  high  from  the  ground,  which  is  sunk  in 
the  panel. 

Most  of  these  Elizabethan  patterns  show  in  theii 
detail  a  Moresque  influence,  being  composed  of  inter- 
lacing strapwork,  the  setting  out  of  which  has  a  certain 
geometrical  basis.    (See  Figs.  61,  62,  and  64.) 

Although,  as  just  stated,  the  chest  can  be  to  almost 
any  size,  the  example  chosen  is  about  3  ft.  long  by 
1  ft.  6  in.  wide  and  2  ft.  high.    The  method  of  letting 


FIG.    C2. — SETTING    OUT 


FIG.    63. — SHADING 


in  the  panels  is  shown  in  Fig.  65,  the  correct  antique 
style  for  country  chests.  It  is  not  given  here  as  the 
only  method,  or  even  the  best,  but  it  is  the  usual  in 
the  antique.  No  nails  or  screws  were  used,  oak  pegs 
being  substituted,  as  in  the  best  modern  work  for 
church  furniture. 

After  carefully  setting  out  the  pattern  on  the 
geometrical  basis  shown  in  Figs.  62  and  64,  it  is 
advisable  to  shade  or  otherwise  mark  in  all  the  back- 
ground that  is  to  be  cut  out.  (See  Fig.  63).  White 
chalk  will  do.    Then  set  this  all  in  with  the  different 

C5  f 


IVoodcarving 

gouges  that  will  most  nearly  follow  the  contour. 
Do  not  set  in  too  deep  at  first  ;  about  \  in.  would 
be  best,  as  one  always  cuts  down  deeper  still  in 
cleaning  up. 

A  little  router  (Figs.  68  or  69)  is  often  used  for  the 
last  cut,  as  it  can  be  so  adjusted  to  keep  an  even 
depth.  These  tools  want  careful  using ;  otherwise 
in  awkward  places  the  ground  will  be  torn  up.  The 
blade   should    not   be    (as   commonly)   like   a   chisel, 


_•> 


yl 


U 


X    \i/   V 


a 


7b" 


FIG.    G4. OUTLINE    ELEVATION 


but  should  have  a  foot  to  it,  giving  a  more  or  less 
horizontal  cut — not  a  scrape,  which  is  the  case  with 
the  older  patterns.  (See  Figs.  70,  71,  and  72.)  The 
wooden  routers  are  easy  to  make  and  cheap  to  buy, 
but  where  much  work  of  this  class  is  done  an  adjustable 
metal  router  is  a  desirable  article. 

When  the  ground  is  all  out  and  the  bottom  clean, 
attention  is  then  paid  to  the  interlacing,  but  not 
before.  The  general  rule  to  follow  is  to  pass  under  and 
over  alternatively.    (See  Fig.  61.)    Parts  of  the  pattern 

60 


Application  of  Carving  to  Furniture 

should  be  shaved  off ;  that  is,  slight  cuts  taken  to 
make  the  running  straps  pass  under  and  over  one 
another.    This  should  be  carefully  observed. 

The  eyes  or  little  circular  hollows  are  now  put  in. 
This  is  done  with  a  small  gouge  or  veiner,  and  is 
made  by  gradually  twisting  the  tool,  held  in  a  vertical 
position,  and  pressing  on  the  centre  of  the  palm  of 
the  hand.  The  panel  is  now  practically  finished, 
although  it  is  best  to  give  it  a  good  look  over  and  to 
make  any  little  alterations  that  seem  necessary. 


FIO.  65. SECTIONAL  PLAN 


FIG.  66. — CARVED  TOP 


In  treating  the  carving  generally,  this  flat  work 
is  mostly  (nowadays  at  least)  left  until  a  later  stage 
than  the  deeper  work  ;  for  although  it  is  less  difficult 
to  do,  and  there  is  less  to  learn  as  far  as  cutting  goes, 
it  is  necessary  to  be  quite  sure  what  one  is  about. 
Decision  in  the  cutting  can  only  be  obtained  by 
practice  on  bolder  work.  Any  little  mistake  shows 
directly  in  a  pattern  set  out  on  a  geometrical  basis. 

67 


Woodcarving 

This  is  especially  the  case  with  strap  work.  It  is  un- 
fortunate, however,  that  strapwork  is  not  more 
generally  used  than  it  is,  as  the  effects  are  remarkably 
good  without  an  undue  amount  of  labour.  It  does  not 
readily  hold  the  dust ;  it  is  strong ;  to  a  certain 
extent  it  is  protected  by  its  even  surface,  and  can  be 
made  in  any  degree  of  richness.  In  fact,  the  panels 
would  probably  look  well  with  half  the  detail  omitted 
according  to  taste. 


FIG.    67. — MOULDED    STILE    AND    RAIL 


The  plan  of  the  lid,  Fig.  66,  shows  how  the  top  can 
also  be  carved  in  some  simple  pattern,  preferably 
based  on  the  unit  or  units  of  the  larger  panel.  The 
actual  panel  as  illustrated  is  supposed  to  be  about 
18J  in.  square  ;  that  is,  the  part  showing  between  the 
stiles  and  rails.  It  is  best,  in  setting  out,  to  make  the 
pattern  in  this  case  12  in.  square,  so  as  to  allow  a 
slight  margin  all  round  to  free  the  pattern.  The  little 
carved  blocks  on  the  front  can  be  omitted  if  desired. 
The  hollow  should  be  cut  in  the  stiles  and  rails  as 

us 


Application  of  Carving  to  Furniture 

shown,  unless  the  edges  are  to  be  moulded  as  in  Fig. 
68,  in  which  case  the  moulding  should  be  stopped. 


FIG.  68. ROUTER 


FIG.  CD. — ROUTER 


FIG.  70 
OLD  STYLE 


FIG.  71 
WITH  SOLE 


FIG.  72 
IMPROVED 


If  it  is  to  be  a  correct  copy  of  the  antique  the  two 
ends  can  also  be  carved. 


CO 


X.— APPLICATION  OF  CARVING 
TO    FURNITURE 


2. — ORNAMENT  FOR  A  PEDIMENT 

THE  design  illustrated  at  Fig.  73  suggests  the 
carved  treatment  of  a  pediment  panel.  The  leaf 
forms  shown  in  Figs.  73  and  74  are  those  com- 
monly used  around  shields,  etc.,  upon  which 
the  arms  of  cities,  boroughs,  schools,  and  regi- 
ments are  depicted. 
This  leaf  is  a  very  useful  one  to  master,  both  in 
its  general  composition  and  also  in  the  carving.  It 
can  be  elongated  to  suit  any  space,  and  twisted  into 
any  number  of  curves  and  scroll-like  forms.  It  was 
first  suggested  by  flowing  drapery  in  the  days  of 
early  heraldry,  since  which  time  it  has  taken  on  the 
leaf-like  treatment.  A  helmet  is  sometimes  placed 
above  the  shield  ;  or,  instead  of  that,  some  other 
device,  such  as  a  mural  crown,  as  in  our  illustration. 
The  shield  here  is  left  plain  in  order  that  it  may  be 
filled  as  required. 

The  leaf. — If  we  look  carefully  at  this  class  of 
scroll-like  leaf  we  shall  see  at  once  how  excellent  it 
is  as  an  object  for  woo.dcarving.  The  long  running 
cuts  and  bold  clean  sweeps  we  can  give  the  tool  make 
it  a  delightful  object  to  work  upon  ;  therefore,  having 
massed  our  leaves  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  suitably 
arranged  for  the  shape  of  the  panel,  commence  to 
work  it  up  by  first  setting  in  the  outline  with  the 
different  gouges,  as  in  the  former  exercises.  Sink 
down  to  about  half  an  inch. 

The  eyes  or  pipes,  Fig.  76,  A,  are  then  sunk  with 
a  small  gouge  with  a  quick  curve.     A  parting  tool 

70 


Application  of  Carving  to  Furniture 

should  now  be  used  to  cut  the  channels,  B.  These 
channels  should  gradually  narrow  towards  the  ends 
of  the  lobes.  This  part  of  the  work  should  be  very 
carefully  done  as  it  is  the  key  for  the  surface  modelling. 
It  is,  in  fact,  the  judicious  rounding  over  of  these 
channels  or  V-cut  forms  that  makes  up  the  chief 
modelling. 

A  flat  gouge  should  next  be  taken,  and  those  parts 
of  the  minor  lobes  that  fall  below  or  appear  to  pass 
under  the  others  pared  down  to  the  required  depth 
as  shown  in  Fig.  74.  Small  V-cuts  can  then  be  made 
on  either  side  of  the  pipes,  working  from  the  eyes, 
A,  Fig.  76,  and  narrowing  as  the  tool  works  away 
from  them.  The  surface  modelling  is  then  cut  in, 
keeping  in  mind  the  general  radiation  from  stem  to 
end  of  leaf.  In  those  places,  C  and  D,  Fig.  74,  where 
the  ribbon-like  ends  turn  over,  a  clean  and  careful 
cut  is  required.  The  contour  appears  to  flow  and 
must  be  cut  with  a  gradual  twist  of  the  wrist.  Of 
course,  this  may  only  be  apparent,  and  several  cuts 
are  needed  to  get  the  effect ;  yet  they  should  be  so 
blended  together  as  to  appear  to  be  one  cut.  It  is 
this  appearance  of  ease  and  clean  cutting  that  gives 
value  to  work.  These  suggestions  refer  to  the  typical 
leaf,  Fig.  74. 

In  relation  to  the  composition  (Fig.  75)  the  planes 
should  be  kept  as  simple  as  possible,  without  destroy- 
ing the  peculiar  character  of  the  leaves.  The  eyes  of 
pipes  are  best  sunk  fairly  deep,  so  as  to  appear  like 
black  recesses.  The  general  modelling  is  shown  by 
means  of  our  usual  section  lines.  At  the  ends  of  most 
of  the  lobes  there  is  a  curling-over  which  gives  a 
very  pleasing  piece  of  cutting.  One  edge  is  brought 
up  in  a  fairly  sharp  line,  the  hollow  at  the  end 
suggesting  a  twist  of  the  wrist  in  using  the  tool. 
(See  also  E,  Fig.  74.) 

It  is  well  to  sink  down  to  a  fair  depth  around  the 

Tl 


O 

'J 
g 


6 
E 


o 

K 

y 
3 

M 

I 

d 
B 


IVoodcarving 

shield,  so  as  to  give  it  a  certain  amount  of  prominence. 
This  shield  can  be  of  any  shape  required,  governed 
by  the  style  of  arms  chosen.     It  is  a  good  plan  to 


FIG.    77. SUGGESTED    APPLICATION 

(Suitable  for  War  Roll  of  Honour  or  similar  object) 


depress  the  lower  part,  so  as  to  sink  behind  the  label 
or  ribbon,  the  upper  part  appearing  to  project  a  little 
forward.  It  should  also  be  slightly  convex — that  is, 
the  sides  sloping  from  the  centre. 


74 


Application  of  Carving  to  Furniture 

If  desired,  the  leaf-like  scrolls  can  be  made  simpler 
by  merely  reducing  the  number  of  the  smaller  lobes 
or  division. 

Application. — The  example  (Fig.  77)  of  the  appli- 
cation of  the  carved  pediment  panel  to  a  War  Roll 
of  Honour  or  similar  board  for  the  reception  of  names 
is  merely  an  illustration  of  how  and  where  the  panel 
can  be  applied.  Reduce  the  detail,  and  elongate  the 
panel  either  way.  This  style  of  leaf  can  be  made  to 
fit  almost  any  space,  and  can  be  used  with  plain 
mouldings  or  carved  borders  (as  in  Fig.  77)  and  other 
framing.  A  thorough  mastery  of  the  leaf  (Fig.  74) 
is  to  be  recommended  to  all  who  are  taking  up  carving 
for  trade  purposes,  as  it  is  constantly  recurring  and 
commonly  in  use  for  public  notice  boards  in  important 
buildings. 


DESIGN    FOR   CARVED    WALL   POCKET 


75 


XI.-APPLICATION  OF  CARVING 
TO    FURNITURE 

3. DESIGN  FOR  CABINET  DOOR 

IN  some  parts  of  the  country  a  few  years  ago 
nearly  every  home  possessed  a  hanging  corner 
cupboard.  Some  of  these  were  plain,  while  others 
were  ornamented  with  mouldings  and  carving. 
These  cupboards,  when  once  firmly  hung,  are  very 
useful  for  sundries  which  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
out  of  reach  of  the  small  rising  generation,  and,  owing 
to  their  elevated  position  and  the  protection  thus 
afforded  them,  they  make  excellent  objects  upon  which 
carving  can  be  applied. 

In  a  living  art  craft,  which  carving  should  be,  it 
would  seem  that  here  we  have  an  opportunity  to 
show  our  pride  of  race  and  love  of  the  country  or 
county  in  which  we  live.  Fig.  78  gives  an  idea  of  how 
this  idea  might  be  expressed.  The  design  contains  the 
National  plant  emblems  of  England,  Scotland,  Ireland 
and  Wales,  the  idea  being  that  upon  the  cartouche 
or  shield  the  arms  of  any  county  or  city  can  be  carved 
or  incised  as  required.  Those  of  London  are  used  here 
because  they  are  simple  and  effective. 

To  be  useful  the  carved  part  as  illustrated  should 
not  be  less  than  12  in.  by  24  in.  ;  otherwise  the  interior 
space  will  be  too  limited  when  the  cupboard  is  made 
up.  A  block  plan  is  given  at  Fig.  82,  showing  how  many 
of  the  old  cupboards  are  arranged  so  as  to  allow  them 
to  fit  into  the  angle  of  the  wall  and  yet  have  a  pro- 
jection in  the  pendiment  and  base  on  either  side.  (See 
Figs.  78  and  82,  A  A.) 

The  background  will  in  this  case  be  like  a  saucer 

70 


Application  of  Carding  to  Furniture 


FIG.    78. DESIGN    FOR    DOOR   OF   CORNER    CABINET, 

WITH    THE    ROSE,    THISTLE,    SHAMROCK,    AND    LEEK 
EMBLEMS    AND    SHIELD    OF    ARMS 


77 


JVoodcarving 


c. 
p 

6 

E 


78 


Application  of  Carving  to  Furniture 


Woodcarving 

in   cross   section,   the   side   of  panel   coinciding   with 
the  rim  and  the  centre  being  fairly  deep  hollow. 

The  shamrock  and  the  leek  are  shown  in  Figs.  80 
and  83,  the  section  lines  of  some  parts  being  given 
upon  them. 

There  is  room  for  a  great  deal  of  individuality  in 
the  treatment  of  a  panel  of  this  type,  and  much  depends 
upon  the  use  made  of  the  suggestions  that  occur  while 
cutting.  The  question  we  should  ask  ourselves  is, 
would  this  or  that  part  look  better  raised  or  depressed, 
bolder,  or  melting  into  the  ground  ?  The  panel  should 
occasionally  be  released  from  the  bench  and  placed 
in  a  side  light  to  note  the  effect,  and  as  a  guide  for 
further  cutting.  The  shield  should  be  fairly  bold,  and 
raised  on  its  outside  edges  so  as  to  give  it  the  necessary 
prominence.  The  scroll-like  rolls  on  this  shield  or 
cartouche  must  be  very  carefully  followed  out,  or  a 
simpler  form  could  be  used  in  its  place. 

Walnut  or  satin  walnut  would  be  the  best  wood 
to  use  for  this  panel ;  and  it  should  be  carved  on  a 
piece  about  §  in.  or  J  in.  thick  so  as  to  allow  for  suffi- 
cient relief.  As  the  height  at  which  these  cupboards 
are  mostly  hung  protects  them,  it  is  admissible  to 
undercut,  especially  around  the  shield,  but  this  part 
of  the  work  should  be  left  until  the  last. 

After  being  transferred,  set  in,  and  squared  out  in 
general  form,  attention  is  paid  to  the  chief  character- 
istics of  each  part  or  plant.  Take,  for  instance,  the 
rose  at  the  top.  Its  section  is  shown  in  Fig.  79,  B. 
That  is  the  first  cutting.  The  form,  being  based  on 
the  Tudor  rose,  the  setting  out  is  somewhat  geometrical; 
and  as  the  form  is  traditional  it  should  be  finished  off 
as  indicated  in  the  detailed  flower.  If  care  is  taken  to 
choose  gouges  which  most  nearly  fit  the  contour  of 
the  petals,  a  very  neat  and  clean  cutting  can  be 
obtained,  the  general  idea  being  to  have  a  double 
saucer-like  treatment  with  a  thickness  or  lij3  in  the 

80 


Application  of  Carving  to  Furniture 

centre  of  each  petal.  For  this  purpose  the  tools 
used  must  be  very  sharp,  and  be  frequently  stropped. 

The  raised  centre  is  best  shown  by  cutting  a  square 
network  across  by  means  of  the  chisel,  or  a  V-tool, 
the  squares  thus  formed  being  slightly  rounded  after- 
wards by  paring  the  corners  off.  Some  of  the  cutting 
sections  of  the  rose  leaves  are  shown  in  Fig.  79.  If, 
after  working  as  indicated,  the  modelling  appears 
tame  or  shallow,  hollow  the  sunken  parts  more  and 
cut  deeper  where  possible  in  order  to  get  a  stronger 
light  and  shade.  It  is  also  well  to  sink  down  between 
the  leaves  to  a  good  depth,  so  as  to  have  some  very 
deep  shadow  to  throw  up  the  leaves. 

The  carving  of  the  thistle  is  to  be  carried  out  on 
the  same  lines,  the  cutting  up  and  detail  being  left 
until  the  last.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  calyx  of  the 
thistle  is  treated  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  the 
centre  of  the  rose.  All  these  forms  are,  and  should 
be,  more  or  less  conventional  in  form. 

In  the  general  scheme  of  carving  this  panel,  it 
would  be  as  well  to  deepen  all  the  background  as 
the  central  line  of  panel  is  approached.  This  would 
give  the  cartouche  or  shield  a  bolder  relief.  Those 
parts  of  the  background  that  show  between  the 
thistle  and  the  shamrock  and  the  shield  can  be  cut 
extra  deep  with  good  effect. 


*U  a 


XII.-APPLICATION  OF  CARVING 
TO  FURNITURE 

4. — GOTHIC   TRACERY 

THE  present  exercise  relates  to  the  execution 
of  Gothic  tracery,  and  the  example  chosen 
(Fig.  84)  gives  one  of  the  many  ways  in  which 
it  can  be  employed  in  the  decoration  of  furniture. 
In  early  times  some  such  tracery  or  open  work 
was  introduced  into  the  doors  and  sides  of 
cupboards,  in  order  to  allow  the  air  to  enter,  thus 
keeping  the  food  that  was  mostly  placed  within  them 
fresh  and  sweet.  They  were  more  or  less  in  use  in  the 
monastic  refectories.  Some  such  cupboard  would  be 
useful  at  the  present  day  for  articles  of  light  food, 
which  may  often  stand  on  a  sideboard  exposed  to 
flies  and  dust.  If  our  proposed  cupboard  doors  were 
lined  or  backed  with  fine  perforated  zinc  and  the 
tracery  executed  in  oak,  we  should  have  a  pleasing 
effect  in  the  contrast  between  the  oak  and  zinc, 
especially  if  the  former  were  fumed.  The  perforation 
should  be  fine  enough  to  keep  the  smaller  flies  out, 
at  the  same  time  allowing  the  free  passage  of  air.  (See 
Fig.  84,  B.) 

The  general  style  of  our  example  is  that  of  the 
Perpendicular  or  Tudor  period.  The  ogee  shaped 
openings  being  a  characteristic  of  that  style,  the 
legs  of  the  base  or  stand  are  best  treated  plain.  Except 
for  the  chamfered  edges  there  should  be  no  ornament. 
The  front  of  the  upper  part  of  lower  member  is  com- 
posed of  a  low  or  depressed  arch.  There  is  no  need  to 
have  quite  so  much  tracery  in  the  upper  member. 
This  could  be  as  in  Fig.  87  for  each  door,  or  there 

18 


Application  of  Carving  to  Furniture 

might  be  a  group  of  three  such  units.  Any  straight 
grained  piece  of  oak  of  fairly  close  texture  would  do 
for  the  panels  and  should  be  from  \  in.  to  f  in.  thick, 
preferably  the  latter,  as  tracery  looks  best  when  cut 
in  deep  relief. 


^:.vj2v^lV^^^\^j^-!gt^,£^^ 


FIG.    84. — CUFBOAHD    WITH    GOTHIC    CARVING 


After  setting  out  these  patterns  on  the  geometrical 
basis  shown  in  Fig.  85,  C,  the  circular  holes  should 
be  drilled  by  means  of  a  standard  extending  bit 
(Fig.   95)   which   can   be   regulated   to   requirements. 


*3 


JVoodcarvuig 

This  is,  of  course,  used  in  a  hand  brace,  unless  access 
can  be  had  to  a  fairly  large  drilling  machine.  The 
latter  makes  easier  work  than  in  the  case  of  the  brace. 
The  drilled  holes  are  shown  in  the  upper  part  of 
Fig.  85,  C.  When  these  have  all  been  drilled  the 
centre  parts  of  the  ogees  should  be  removed  (see 
shaded  part  in  centre,  Fig.  85,  D) ;  this  and  the  ogee 
ends  are  opened  and  removed  by  means  of  a  keyhole 
saw. 

The  carving. — We  can  now  commence  to  mould 
or  cut  the  cusping.  The  different  lines  suggesting  the 
filleted  edges  and  curved  splays  having  been  care- 
fully marked  in,  take  a  small  slip  of  wood,  just  large 
enough  to  cover  the  drilled  holes,  etc.,  with  a  little 
to  spare,  in  the  centre  of  which  a  screw  of  convenient 
size  is  driven.  The  head  of  screw  should  be  true  and 
sharp,  and  must  be  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  of 
slip. 

This  screw  is  regulated  up  or  down  according 
to  the  depth  of  splay  hollow  or  chamfer  re- 
quired, and  the  sharp  edge  of  the  head  is  worked 
or  rubbed  against  the  sides  of  the  drilled  open- 
ings, thus  giving  us  a  uniform  line  at  the  required 
depth  upon  the  vertical  sides  of  the  holes  as  the 
panel  lies  on  the  bench.  (See  Fig.  92).  A  straight 
gouge  of  fairly  quick  curve  can  now  be  used  to  rough 
out  the  cuspings,  the  first  cuts  of  which  are  shown  in 
the  upper  part  of  Fig.  90,  F,  care  being  taken  to  chip 
well  above  the  marked,  line,  so  that  enough  wood  is 
left  for  the  proper  cleaning  up  of  the  curves  by  means 
of  the  curved  or  spoon  gouge,  Fig.  88.  This  gouge 
should  have  a  fairly  stout  neck  and  be  about  \  in. 
to  f  in.  across  the  blade.  The  stronger  tool  used  by 
pattern  makers  is  the  best  for  this  class  of  work. 

In  cutting  tracery  great  care  must  be  taken  to 
match  the  grain  and  to  reverse  the  cutting  direction 
at  the  least  sign  of  danger.     It  is  as  well  to  bear  in 

84 


Application  of  Carving  to  Furniture 


FIG.   85. — DETAIL   OF  TRACERY 


ric.  86. — tArriNG  for  cupboaro 

8j 


IVoodcarviug 


FIGS.  87  TO  95. — SflOWlNG   VARIOUS  DETAILS   OF  WOKK, 
WITH    SECTIONS,    TOOLS,    F.TC. 


to 


Application  of  Carving  to  Furniture 

mind  that  care  and  correctness  are  everything ;  for 
in  this  geometrical  work  faulty  cutting  shows  up  very 
plainly  and  cannot  be  rectified  once  the  wood  is  cut 
away.  A  little  gauge  should  be  made  as  in  Fig.  89, 
in  order  to  test  the  depth  of  the  cuts  in  the  spandrels 
of  the  cusps.  A  section  of  these  spandrels  is  shown 
in  Fig.  94.  A  \  in.  or  \  in.  hollow,  as  shown  in  Fig.  93, 
is  suitable.  The  fillet  or  square  edge  should  be  about 
\  in.  or  T^  in.  wide. 

The  capping  of  this  cupboard  is  drilled  and  cut  on 
the  same  principle  as  that  of  the  tracery  (see  Fig.  86,  G 
and  H,  which  should  be  sufficient  to  explain  what 
is  required).  This  capping  is  kept  simple  in  the  example, 
but  it  is  possible  to  work  it  up  and  put  more  detail 
if  required. 

In  Fig.  91  an  example  is  given  of  the  cutting  when 
the  cusps  lie  below  the  general  surface  of  the  panel. 
This  is  shown  on  the  section.  When  carefully  done 
this  is  an  improvement,  but  it  requires  great  care. 
Although  tracery  is  often  executed  on  a  small  scale, 
the  work  running  very  fine,  it  is  not  advisable  to  start 
with  any  but  the  bolder  type,  getting  the  hand  in  by 
degrees.  There  are  many  ways  in  which  this  typical 
English  class  of  woodcajving  could  be  used,  and  why 
it  is  so  neglected  in  domestic  furniture  is  hard  to 
understand. 


87 


XIII.— APPLICATION   OF 
CARVING   TO   FURNITURE 

5. THE    CARVED    CABRIOLE    LEG 

WE  are  all  familiar  with  the  cabriole  leg,  and 
in  this  country  there  are  examples  of  its  gradual 
development.  It  dates  back  to  the  time  of 
the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians.  From  that 
period  it  was  carried  on  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  but  its  use  was  abandoned  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  only  to  reappear  during  the  time  of 
the  Renaissance.  Were  it  not  for  the  above  facts 
its  evolution  in  England  could  be  shown  as  at  Figs.  96 
to  99,  namely,  in  the  club,  the  camel  foot,  the  cabriole 
camel  foot,  and,  finally,  the  cabriole  ball  and  claw. 

Although  these  legs  or  supports  are  often  made 
without  any  carving  whatever,  occasions  arise  in 
which  it  is  desirable  to  cut  out  and  carve  them  in 
some  particular  style  ;  4  cabriole  '  leg  really  means 
the  leg  of  a  goat.  This  form  was  often  used  by  the 
French,  hence  its  name.  It  has  now  become  common 
to  call  all  curved  and  carved  leg  shapes  by  that  name, 
whatever  form  the  claws  may  take. 

In  our  example,  Fig.  100,  a  type  is  taken  that  can 
be  developed  into  any  animal  or  other  form  desired 
in  regard  to  the  head  and  foot,  e.g.  the  lion,  panther, 
tiger,  horse,  etc.  The  wood  chosen  should  be  hard, 
of  a  close  texture,  and  straight  in  grain.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  procure  it  of  sufficient  thickness  to  allow 
for  suitable  and  characteristic  modelling,  although 
good  work  can  be  done  on  thinner  wood  by  means 
of  lower  relief.  The  shape  of  the  whole  leg  should  be 
marked    out    and    the    same    pattern    carefully    used 

83 


Application  of  Carving  to  Furniture 

for  all  the  legs.  All  that  can  possibly  be  done  with 
the  saw  (that  is,  the  bow  or  band  saw)  should  be  seen 
to  first.  The  pattern  should  then  be  traced  out  as  in 
Fig.  104. 

A  fair  sized  V-tool  should  now  be  used  to  set  it 
in  and  the  cutting  should  be  on  the  deep  side  for 


FIG.  96  FIG.  97  FIG.  98  FIG.  99 

CLUB  FOOT     CAMEL  FOOT  PLAIN  CABRIOLE  BALL  AND  CLAW 
FOUR  TYPES  OF  CABRIOLE  LEGS 


preference.  The  chest  can  be  gradually  cut  to  appear 
to  have  a  more  or  less  pointed  appearance.  The 
back,  although  rounded,  should  be  thicker  or  broader 
than  the  line  of  the  front ;  see  section  lines  A,  A,  A, 
Fig.  104. 

After    the    general   form    has   been    more    or    less 
shaped   in,  attention   should    be   paid    to  the    head, 

80 


JVoodcarving 


FIG.    100        FIG.    101  FIG.    102 

SIDE  OUTLINE  FRONT 

VIEW  OF   HEAD  VIEW 


FIG.    103  FIG.    104 

HEAD  ROUGH 

(front)  BLOCK 


iH> 


Application  of  Caning  to  Furniture 

and  from  the  very  first  an  attempt  should  be  made 
to  set  out  the  form  as  Fig.  105.     As  long  as  enough 


FIG.    105. — SETTING    OUT   FORM    OF    HEAD 
FIG.    106. HEAD   TARTLY   MODELLED    (WITH    SECTION   LINES) 

wood  is  left  on   there   can  be  no  fear  of  getting  the 
noddling    too   square.       It   should  be   noticed   that 

¥1 


PVoodcarving 


the  head  is  wedge-shaped  in  plan,  as  shown  by  inset 
at  Fig.  100. 

After  using  the  V-tool,  chisels  and  flat  gouges  are 
the  best  tools  to  use.  The  recess  in  front  of  the  eye, 
the  hollow  of  the  ear,  and  the  mouth,  are  the  best 
parts  to  work  on  next.  After  these  main  features 
have  been  roughed  out  (see  Figs.  103  and   105)  the 


FIG.    107— 

'IOE    SET 

OUT 


FIG.  108.— 

TOE 

MODELLED 

(WITH 

SKETCH 

PLAN) 


foot  or  claw  should  be  treated  in  the  same  manner, 
first  with  the  V-tool  and  then  squared  out  with  broad 
square  cuts  (see  Fig.  108.)  The  ring-like  forms  for 
the  body  and  chest  are  cut  with  the  V-tool  and  rounded 
with  a  flat  gouge ;  afterwards  the  modelling  of  the 
head  is  finished  off  with  gouges  which  will  most  nearly 
fit  the  contours  suggested  in  the  illustrations. 

02 


Application  of  Carving  to  Furniture 

Fig.  103  shows  what  the  front  view  of  the  head 
should  look  like  when  it  has  been  squared  and  blocked 
out  only.  The  rounding  off  must  be  very  carefully 
done.  Two  vertical  half  sections  are  given  in  Fig.  106 
as  a  guide.  Note  that  the  ears  should  not  be  separated 
too  much  from  the  wood  at  their  tips,  as  they  are 
liable  to  breakage.     The  long  bold  curves  that  flow 


PTQ.    109. — SKETCH   OF   CIRCULAR   TABLE 
WITH   THREE   LEGS 


from  the  back  of  the  head  to  the  front  of  the  chest 
should  be  cut  as  clean  and  strong  as  possible  ;  the 
simpler  they  are  treated  the  better.  (See  section,  Fig. 
106,  B.)  The  muscle  forming  the  eyebrows  should  be 
strong  and  the  eyeball  sunk  a  fair  distance  to  give  the 
head  a  stronger  expression.  A  weak  treatment  of  the 
eye  would  spoil  the  whole.  With  regard  to  this  ex- 
ample it  is  merely  a  type  showing  how  such  may  be 

93 


Woodcarving 

cut  out  and  carved.  There  are  a  great  many  good 
specimens  of  all  kinds  to  be  seen  in  our  public  buildings 
and  museums. 

The  square  treatment,  Fig.  101,  for  first  drawing 
the  outline  of  the  head  is  a  useful  method.  Constant 
teaching  and  workshop  practice  teach  one  that  we  are 
all  too  prone  to  round  everything  over  much  too  soon 
in  our  work,  and  it  is  as  well  to  combat  against  this 
from  the  first.  If  the  rings  were  left  out  and  the 
chest  and  body  only  shaped  according  to  the  sections, 
the  leg  would  probably  look  nearly  as  well  and  would 
be  more  suitable  for  some  purposes. 

At  Fig.  109  are  given  a  sketch  and  plan  of  a  circular 
table  with  three  cabriole  legs  such  as  we  have  de- 
scribed. No  size  is  suggested  as  this  depends  on  in- 
dividual requirements.  Of  course  we  must  always 
be  guided  by  the  usual  height  of  tables  or  to  whatever 
such  legs  may  be  applied.  There  should  always  be  a 
tendency  to  the  bold  size,  as  it  is  much  better  to  err 
here  than  on  the  small  side.  The  scope  of  this  sort  of 
carving  is  very  wide,  and  it  is  useful  to  obtain  pro- 
ficiency in  it. 


DESIGN    FOR   LOUIS   XV   TABLK 


94 


XIV.— CONVENTIONAL  LION 
AND   GALLIC   COCK 


APPLIED   TO   SPANDRELS 

WHEN  carving  was  in  its  primitive  stages,  and 
when  the  impressions  made  upon  the  minds 
of  men  by  the  objects  around  them  (the  events 
of  the  day,  etc.)  were  portrayed  in  carved 
wood,  much  use  was  made  of  symbols  or  signs 
intending  to  depict  the  character  or  personality 
of  individuals  or  nations.  This  work  was  mostly  of  an 
heraldic  nature.  Old  as  it  is,  dating  back  to  prehistoric 
ages,  it  is  still  made  use  of  at  the  present  day,  not 
only  in  coats  of  arms,  trade  signs,  and  symbols  of 
friendly  societies,  etc.,  but  also  in  modern  cartoons, 
such,  for  example,  as  the  British  Lion,  the  Gallic 
Cock,  the  Russian  Bear,  and  the  German  Eagle. 
Some  countries  have  several  symbols  or  attributes 
depicting  the  race.  We  ourselves  have  Britannia, 
John  Bull,  the  Bulldog,  the  Lion,  and  the  Rose, 
Thistle,  and  Shamrock. 

One  particular  advantage  is  that  such  symbols 
will  practically  fit  in  with  all  styles  and  periods,  the 
use  of  heraldic  and  symbolic  forms  being  continuous. 
Now  one  of  the  most  common  and  useful  spaces 
to  decorate  with  woodcarving  is  the  spandrel.  This 
is  partly  formed  by  the  depressed  or  low  arch,  and 
can  be  made  use  of  in  many  ways.  Spandrels  of  this 
kind  are  seen  in  overmantels,  fireplace  casings,  side- 
boards, cupboards,  etc.  The  scale  of  the  present  ex- 
amples obviously  depends  upon  the  uses  to  which  the 
carving  is  going  to  be  put ;  but,  whether  small  or 
large,  the  procedure  would  be  the  same.     A  careful 

95 


Woodcarving 

tracing  should  be  made,  and  after  this  has  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  wood  the  outline  should  be  set  in  with 
great  care,  the  flat  gouges  coming  in  useful.  On  no 
account  should  the  edges  of  the  gouges  used  overlap 


riO.    110. — SETTING    OUT   THE    LION 


v  * »        r'    Jl      >       Y        " -^ 


FIG.    111. — SETTING    OUT    THE    GALLIC    COCK 


the  line  so  as  to  cut  into  the  body  of  the  lion,  etc. 
The  modelling  being  in  low  relief,  it  would  be  difficult 
to  get  rid  of  marks  left  by  false  or  over  cuts. 

It  is  well  to  think  out  all  of  this  class  of  work  in 
planed.     For  example,  the  highest  plane  or  surface 


Conventional  Lion  and  Gallic  Cock 

in  the  lion  spandrel  (Fig.  112)  is  the  head  or  skull  \ 
the  hair  or  mane  comes  next,  and  is  first  set  out 
as  in  Fig.  114,  in  somewhat  elliptical  form.  The 
general  appearance  of  our  first  stage  or  cutting  would 
be  that  as  might  obtain  from  fretting  the  outline  of 
the  whole  in  £  in.  thickness  of  wood,  and  then 
adding  upon  that  the  head  and  mane  in  layers  of 
|  in.  (supposing  this  to  have  been  done  by  means  of 
the  tools  and  in  the  proper  way  with  solid  wood). 
We  have  then  got  over  the  first  part.  The  ground 
should  be  fairly  flat  and  cleaned  up  nicely,  so  as  to 
bring  the  figure  up  sharp  against  it. 

A  medium  sized  and  a  small  flat  gouge  are  now  used 
to  pare  off  the  square  edges  of  the  outline  in  order 
to  form  out  the  modelling.  Unless  a  fair  amount  of 
anatomical  knowledge  is  possessed  by  the  carver  it 
is  best  to  keep  the  spandrel  flat  in  treatment,  making 
use  of  very  little  surface  modelling.  A  reference  to 
the  section  and  modelling  of  the  head  in  the  last 
chapter  will  give  some  idea  of  what  this  modelling 
should  be.  Here,  however,  it  is  to  be  suggested  only, 
and  the  head  is  seen  in  side  view.  The  mane,  or  hair, 
is  cut  in  spike-like  masses  ;  the  V-tool  will  come  in 
useful  for  this,  and  the  lines  or  cuts  of  direction  should 
radiate  from  around  the  ear.  As  much  as  possible 
should  be  made  of  the  bristling  appearance  of  the 
mane  of  the  lion  and  the  ruff  of  the  Gallic  cock,  so 
as  to  make  it  a  symbol  of  these  warlike  times. 

As  in  all  this  class  of  work,  certain  parts  of  the 
detail  are  exaggerated  to  emphasise  the  fighting 
qualities — the  hawk-like  talons,  claws,  etc.  Any 
readers  who  reside  near  or  in  towns  of  any  size  can 
easily  note  the  general  modelling  of  the  body  of  the 
lion,  there  is  such  an  extensive  use  made  of  it  in 
nearly  all  public  places  for  monumental  purposes, 
whilst  the  lord  of  the  chicken  run  is  a  familiar  form 
to  all  of  us.      The  body  of  the  lion  should  be  kept 

97  H 


titiTfffSTnm.iiri..,.J.r i,m.,t,ffffiilw»lil»lilHn| 


IVoodcm  ving 

as  long  and  narrow  as  possible,  as  in  the  illustration, 
being  (from  an  heraldic  point  of  view)  correct  in  this 
attitude. 

With  regard  to  the  shield  at  the  base  of  spandrel, 
only  a  simple  device  is  shown  upon  it.  The  Red 
Cross  is  that  of  the  British,  and  the  Fleur-de-lis  is 
that  of  France.  In  the  smaller  illustration,  Fig.  Ill, 
B  and  C,  giving  the  setting  out  of  the  Gallic  cock 
the  body  and  head  shown  in  the  elliptical  form  should 
afford  some  idea  of  the  slightly  raised  modelling. 
No  section  lines  have  been  given,  as  the  first  stage 
drawings,  showing  square  cutting  (Figs.  114  and 
115)  should  give  all  that  is  necessary. 

On  the  drawing  of  the  lion  emblem  a  few  section 
lines  are  given  on  Fig.  112,  A  showing  the  V  cutting, 
and  BBB  giving  the  modelling  of  parts  of  the  body. 
The  device  on  the  shields  can  be  either  slightly  sunk, 
or  it  may  be  raised.  To  those  who  can  draw  and  have 
also  a  little  knowledge  of  design,  it  should  not  be  a 
matter  of  great  difficulty  to  acquire  the  power  to  alter 
such  forms  as  these  to  suit  the  different  shaped  span- 
drels that  are  commonly  in  use.  The  question  as  to 
the  amount  of  relief  required  in  these  spandrels  can 
only  be  answered  by  a  consideration  of  the  position 
it  is  to  occupy,  and  also  the  thickness  of  the  wood 
available.  If  the  spandrel  is  surrounded  by  strongly 
raised  mouldings  or  other  members  so  that  the  carv- 
ing would  be  in  a  recessed  position,  the  cutting 
should  in  this  case  be  deeper  and  the  modelling  bolder 
than  that  set  out  in  the  illustration,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  necessary  definition  of  the  pattern.  This  is  an 
important  point,  and  attention  should  be  paid  to  it 
before  commencing  to  cut. 


100 


XV.— NATURAL   FORMS 

I. — CARVING     A     BIRD     AND     FOLIAGE     PANEL 

SO  far  the  examples  illustrated  have  dealt  chiefly 
with  the  practice  of  woodcarving  on  more  or 
less  of  a  conventional  basis.  It  will  thus  be  a 
change  to  deal  with  designs  of  naturalistic  form, 
conventionalising  to  a  much  less  degree  and  that 
only  in  the  arrangement  of  the  leading  lines. 
We  will  therefore  (in  this  and  the  two  following 
chapters)  take  a  series  of  panels  of  a  generally  useful 
size  that  could  be  used  for  fire-screens,  sideboard  or 
cupboard  doors,  etc.,  say  about  22  in.  high  by  10  in. 
wide  and  from  }  in.  to  1  in.  thick,  woods  such  as  satin 
walnut,  dark  walnut,  or  close-grained  oak,  being 
suitable. 

The  examples  will  go  under  either  of  the  groups  : 
earth,  sky  and  sea  ;  fish,  flesh  and  fowl.  This  offers  a 
wide  scope  of  treatment,  and  as  decoration  for  home 
furniture  such  panels  should  be  singularly  appropriate. 
The  panel  illustrated  is  that  of  two  birds  repre- 
senting pheasants.  This  would  do  for  sky  or  air  owing 
to  their  flight,  or  for  a  panel  representing  game  or 
fowl. 

The  birds. — Before  commencing  this  panel  it  is 
as  well  to  bear  in  mind  what  was  mentioned 
previously  about  sinking  the  ground  deeper  towards 
the  centre  of  panel,  so  as  to  throw  up  the  principal 
objects — in  this  case  the  two  birds.  Great  care  will 
have  to  be  taken  to  get  the  drawing  correct  as  the 
contour  is  subtle.  It  would  be  best  to  set  in  the  upper 
bird  first ;  much  depends  upon  how  this  comes  out, 
it  being  the  principal  part.  Cut  in  fairly  deep,  as  some 
parts  such  as  the  legs  and  neck  will  have  to  fall  back 

lei 


Woodcarving 


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FIG.   111. — CARVED  PANEL,   22  IN.   BY   10  IN.,    WITH 
PHEASANTS    AND    OAK    FOLIAGE 


102 


Natural  Forms 

behind  the  general  plane  so  as  to  appear  to  be  in  the 
centre  of  the  body.  Fig.  117  will  give  some  idea  of 
the  first  cutting  of  this  bird.  The  parts  marked  A, 
B,  C,  are  in  three  different  planes,  one  below  the  other, 
and  should  have  the  first  attention.  See  also  at  D, 
where  the  neck  falls  in  a  lower  plane. 

In  cutting  away  around  the  body,  etc.,  the  slope 
of  the  part  cut  away  should  not  be  abrupt,  but  like 
Fig.  118,  E,  E.  When  this  has  been  done  in  a  satis- 
factory manner  the  edges  can  be  rounded  off,  and 
the  body  modelled  in  the  manner  shown  in  the  sections, 
it  always  being  borne  in  mind  that  the  body  and 
head  are  oval  or  egg-shaped  in  general  form.  (See 
Fig.  119).  The  general  relief  is  that  of  half  an  egg. 
After  the  moulding  has  been  executed  the  position 
of  the  main  wing  and  tail  feathers  can  be  put  in.  By 
means  of  the  parting  or  V-tool  the  principles  of  radia- 
tion should  be  taken  full  advantage  of,  especially  in 
the  wing  and  at  the  base  of  the  tail. 

The  breast  and  lower  part  of  the  body  have  an 
imbricated  treatment  in  the  feathering,  which  is 
shown  in  the  lower  part  of  the  neck  in  Fig.  120.  This 
is  obtained  by  means  of  a  gouge  that  follows  the 
curves  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  tool  being  pressed 
down  to  a  slight  depth  in  the  order  of  arrangement. 
Afterwards  some  of  the  wood  is  pared  from  the  top 
or  outer  edge,  backwards,  towards  the  base  of  the 
curved  cut  behind.  (See  Fig.  120.)  There  are  some 
feathers  about  the  neck,  but  below  the  band  (F,  Fig. 
121)  that  are  represented  in  a  more  pointed  manner, 
and  with  a  flatter  gouge,  but  the  process  here  is  the 
same.  The  neckband  F  is  represented  in  the  living 
specimen  by  white  feathers,  and  the  contrast  is  best 
indicated  in  woodcarving  by  a  rather  plain  or  smooth 
surface.  In  matters  of  this  kind  and  in  relation  to  all 
the  detail  it  would,  of  course,  be  a  great  advantage 
to  be  able  to  examine  a  real  bird,  as  then  the  spirit 

103 


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JVoodcarving 

of  the  treatment  could  be  more  easily  followed.  This 
sort  of  work  could  be  made  very  rich  by  means  of 
working  up  the  feathers  in  their  right  direction  by 
means  of  small  and  shallow  surface  cuts. 

The  head  wants  careful  cutting,  but  the  illustration 
at  Fig.  121  should  give  a  good  lead  if  the  shading  is 
carefully  read.  The  head  of  the  hen  bird  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  panel  should  be  kept  in  fairly  bold  relief, 
with  the  branches  sunk  in  behind.  The  treatment  of 
the  body  of  this  bird  should  be  kept  quieter  than  the 
upper  one. 

The  oak  foliage. — The  oak  leaves  and  stem 
should  be  carved  last  of  all ;  their  treatment  is  shown 
in  Fig.  122. 

Similar  blocking  out  and  finishing  are  carried  out 
over  the  whole  of  the  foliage.  There  is  room  for  a  lot 
of  feeling  and  variety  in  these  leaves,  and  the  alteration 
of  planes  can  be  effected  as  the  work  goes  along. 

As  a  general  rule  it  is  usual  to  keep  one  edge  of  a 
leaf  raised.  The  edge  of  the  leaf  next  to  it  is  kept  down. 
A  direct  copy  of  any  illustration  is  not  necessary  or 
even  desirable.  Individual  fancy,  when  combined  with 
intelligence  and  knowledge  of  nature,  gives  the  re- 
quisite spirit  or  feeling.  This  is  everything  in  success- 
ful work.  Oak  leaves  have  a  tendency  to  angular 
growth  as  regards  their  setting  out  in  leaf  stalks  and 
branches,  and  this  must  not  be  forgotten. 

The  background  of  this  panel  can  be  cleaned  up  and 
left  plain,  or  it  may  be  rough  with  a  broken  appear- 
ance. A  woolly  effect  is  avoided  by  using  sharp  tools 
and  clean  cuts. 

It  has  been  unnecessary  in  the  last  few  chapters 
to  say  much  about  tools.  New  ones  of  different  shape 
and  size  should  be  obtained  as  the  necessity  appears 
to  arise,  and  this  can  only  be  felt  by  a  carver  himself. 
Some  work  with  fewer  tools  than  others,  but  a  good 
variety  is  increasingly  useful  as  progress  is  made. 

106 


XVI.— NATURAL   FORMS 

2. CARVING    A    FISH    PANEL 

THIS  exercise  in  the  series  of  three  with  which  we 
are  now  treating  relates  to  fish  and  water  (Fig. 
123),  and  is  more  conventional  in  its  arrange- 
ment than  the  panel  of  pheasants  and  oak 
leaves,  with  which  we  have  just  dealt.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  the  subject  lends  itself 
more  readily  to  a  pleasing  arrangement  (see  Fig.  127) 
in  the  setting  out.  The  panel  is  supposed  to  be  the  same 
size  as  before,  22  in.  by  10  in.  by  f  in.,  and  should  be 
executed  in  walnut. 

When  the  design  has  been  satisfactorily  transferred 
to  the  wood,  and  the  interlacing,  or  passing  over  and 
under,  of  certain  parts  duly  noted,  commence  cutting 
by  setting  in  and  working  the  ground  away  from  around 
the  two  principal  fish  forms  in  the  lower  half  of  the 
panel.  The  ground  should  be  removed  until  it  leaves 
a  hollow,  as  shown  in  section  at  Fig.  124.  A  A.  This 
should  be  done  with  both  of  the  chief  fish  forms,  and 
the  cuts  should  be  deep  so  as  to  give  these  two  princi- 
pal features  their  necessary  prominence. 

The  fish. — The  first  modelling  of  the  fish  is  shown 
in  section  and  detail  in  Fig.  124.  A  section  across  the 
head  is  also  given  at  B  B.  For  a  section  across  the 
mouth  see  C  C,  Fig.  125. 

The  carving  of  this  panel  would  look  well  if  the 
cutting  away  of  the  ground  was  deeper  in  the  centre, 
as  mentioned  before  in  relation  to  similar  panels. 
The  saucer-like  section  should  be  kept  in  mind,  and 
sufficient  wood  left  on  the  hollowed  ground  to  allow 
of  a  series  of  long,  bold,  sweeping  cuts,  suggested  in 
the  direction  of  the  lines  in  Fig.  123.    This  should  be 

107 


IVoodcarving 


FIQ.    128. CARVED    PANEL,    22    IN.   BY    10    IN., 

REPRESENTING    FISH   AND   WATER 

108 


Natural  Forms 

made  a  marked  feature  in  the  carving  of  the  paneJ: 
a  section  of  what  is  intended  being  shown  in  Fig.  125, 
D  D.  The  hollow  cuts  fit  in  well  with  the  flow  of  the 
design,  and  also  suggest  disturbed  water.  It  would, 
in  fact,  form  an  admirable  background  if  carefully 
executed.  If  a  V  or  parting  tool  is  run  fairly  deep  on 
either  side  of  the  leaf  and  flower  stalks,  these  curved 
and  sweeping  lines  will  come  out  clear  and  free  at 
the  end  of  the  cuts. 

Work  the  ground  out  well  from  around  the  head 
and  cut  in  the  hollow  of  the  mouth  deep.  By  keeping 
this  bold  and  strong,  and  slightly  diminishing  the 
relief  as  the  tail  is  approached,  a  suggestion  of  pers- 
pective and  movement  is  given.  (Fig.  124,  E  E.)  For 
a  section  of  the  eye  see  Fig.  125,  F.  The  stalks  of 
the  leaves  and  flowers  are  shown  circular  in  the  illus- 
tration, but  they  would  probably  look  well  if  cut  on 
an  octagonal  section.  It  is  a  matter  of  choice,  but  as 
the  leaves  are  of  a  rounded  form  this  would  cause  a 
pleasing  contrast.  The  broad  ribbing  or  serrations 
in  the  fins  and  tails  of  the  fish  should  be  cut  up  with 
a  sharp  and  clean  edge  so  as  to  get  the  required  char- 
acter. 

The  scales  are  of  great  importance,  and  should 
be  set  out  carefully  as  regards  the  imbrication ; 
indeed,  with  as  much  care  as  if  we  were  going  to 
execute  geometrical  chip  carving,  in  which  this  class 
of  pattern  is  familiar.  There  is,  however,  this  dif- 
ference :  the  scales  should  become  smaller  as  the  tail 
is  approached,  as  in  nature.  This,  of  course,  adds 
to  the  difficulty  in  the  present  example,  and  it  will 
be  necessary  to  use  several  gouges  of  different  sizes. 

The  shading  of  the  scales  in  Fig.  125  is  given  to 
explain  the  modelling,  which  has  to  be  executed 
on  a  curved  surface.  Should  it  be  felt  that  the  correct 
rendering  of  the  scales,  as  illustrated,  is  too  difficult, 
a  good  effect  can  be  obtained  by  just  indicating  them 

109 


JVoodcarving 

by  shallow  cuts  at  regular  intervals  upon  the  surface 
of  the  fish,  or  the  outline  of  curve  only  can  be  incised. 
Whichever   method    is   used,  care  must  be  taken  not 


FIG.    124. — FIRST   MODELLING   OF   LARGE    FISH 

to  cut  too  deep  or  to  break  up  the  general  contour 
or  form  of  the  body  of  the  fish.  This  is  not  an  easy 
panel,  but  it  is  one  in  which  there  are  many  possi- 

110 


Natural  Forms 

bilities  for  individual  expression  and  character,  there 
being  room  for  a  sense  of  freedom  and  enjoyment  in 
the  cutting. 


FIG.    125. DETAIL   OF    HEAD    AND    BODY    OF    FISH 

The  leaves,  etc. — Some  vertical  and  rectangular 
sections  are  given  (Fig.  126)  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
panel  treating  of  the  leaves,  flower,  and  buds.     The 

ill 


71 


go 


Natural  Forms 

background  is  shown  flat  in  this  sketch  so  as  not  to 
confuse  the  sections.  The  different  values  of  the 
depth,  modelling  and  light  and  shade  could,  of  course, 
have  been  more  fully  shown,  but  in  woodcarving  all 
these  values  should  be  felt  as  the  work  proceeds. 

For  instance,  take  the  water-lily  flower  in  the 
upper  part  of  panel,  where  only  a  sketch  is  shown, 
and  a  simple  section.  Now,  nearly  every  one  has  a 
general  idea  of  the  shape  of  this  flower  and  could 
make  a  rough  sketch  model  of  it  in  clay.  Thus  cut 
it  according  to  your  knowledge  in  medium  relief. 
A  carver  should  always  think  of  his  work  in  relation 
to  its  section.  If  the  student  is  not  quite  sure  of  the 
general  form  and  section  of  a  fish  of  the  common 
type,  take  the  first  opportunity  of  studying  one,  as 
it  lies  on  the  nearest  fishmonger's  slab,  or,  better 
still,  from  life  in  the  glass  globes  used  for  that  purpose 
or  in  the  public  parks  and  gardens. 

If  it  is  desired  to  carve  this  panel  on  a  smaller 
scale  than  that  of  the  dimensions  given,  some  of 
the  detail  should  be  omitted,  such  as  the  group  of 
small  fishes  at  the  upper  part  and  the  two  smaller 
side  buds. 


us 


XVII.— NATURAL  FORMS 

3. CARVING  A  HARE  AND  SQUIRREL  PANEL 

IN  this  design  the  subject  of  animals  is  dealt  with , 
and,  as  the  introduction  of  an  animal  larger  in 
scale  than  the  hare  would  not  allow  of  a  treatment 
that  would  harmonise  with  the  panels  illustrated 
in  the  two  preceding  chapters,  we  are  limited  to 
the  size  of  some  such  animal.  It  is,  however,  quite 
possible  to  make  a  pleasing  design  within  these  con- 
ditions, and  in  order  to  give  the  appearance  of  light- 
ness and  also  to  pair  with  the  panel  containing  birds, 
a  squirrel  is  introduced. 

The  foliage  may  be  made  to  resemble  the  chestnut 
or  some  similar  leaf  at  the  choice  of  the  carver.  In 
the  illustrations  only  the  general  containing  lines  are 
drawn. 

A  certain  amount  of  knowledge  of  design  can  be 
acquired  by  taking  note  of  the  setting  out  of  these 
and  kindred  panels.  The  present  set  is  for  an  upright 
position,  and  thus  the  decorations  or  filling  should 
appear  to  have  more  mass  or  weight  at  the  lower 
part.  It  is  necessary  to  bear  this  in  mind  in  carving, 
and  to  cut  out  around  the  hares  in  such  a  manner  so 
as  to  throw  them  up  in  fairly  bold  relief. 

The  hares  are  represented  in  what  is  known  as 
their  form  or  resting  place.  Thus  a  hollowing-out 
process  around  them  would  be  in  keeping  with  their 
surroundings,  and  the  saucer-like  hollow  mentioned 
in  former  lessons  should  be  started  just  inside  the 
tree  stem,  passing  behind  the  animals,  and  throwing 
them  in  relief  with  a  fair  amount  of  light  and  shade. 
As  regards  the  first  setting  in  (or  massing  out) 
of  the  animals  there  are  two  methods,  either  of  which 

114 


Natural  Forms 


FIG.    128. CARVED    PANEL,    22  IN.    BY    10  IN., 

REPRESENTING  ANIMAL  LIFE HARE  AND  SQUIRREL 

115 


Woodcarving 

would  do  if  executed  with  care  :  (1)  with  chisels  or 
flat  gouges,  to  be  rounded  afterwards  (see  Fig.  129  [2] 
in  outline),  or  (2)  with  different  gouges  on  the  curved 


FIG.    129. (1)    HARE    SET    IN  ; 

(2)      OUTLINE  J        (8)      SECOND 
STAGE 


Fife.    130. — LINE     SCHEME     OF 
PANEL 


principle.  The  latter  is  perhaps  the  easier  method 
(see  Fig.  129  [1]),  but  the  straight-lined  outline  allows 
of  more  true  and  suggestive  drawing  and  cutting. 


no 


Natural  Forms 

In  both  cases  the  first  cuts  must  be  well  on  the 
outside  of  the  outline  to  allow  for  the  usual  cleaning 
up.  The  ears  of  the  hare  are  smooth,  but  the  lower 
part  of  the  outline,  such  as  the  chest,  etc.,  should  be 

FIG.    131.— SQUIRREL   SET    IN 


•»-/? 


FIG.    132. — SHOWING    LINES    ON   SQUIRREL 


broken  up  to  suggest  fur,  and  it  is  the  successful  use 
of  the  V-tool  on  the  surface  of  the  body  and  limbs 
that  makes  the  animal  a  success.  If  cut  in  with  care, 
the  direction  of  these  cuts  must  be  that  of  the  natural 
way  of  the  fur,  and  if  correct  this  will  help  to  suggest 

117 


IVoodcarving 


FIG.    133. — HARE   WITH 
EARS   LOWERED 


FIG.    134. HARE,    WITH 

SECTIONS 


FIG.    135. — HARE    BLOCKED  FIG.    136. — HALF-OVAL 

OUT  TREATMENT 

DETAILS   OF   HARE    AND    SQUIRREL 


118 


Natural  Forms 

the  contour  of  the  limbs.  The  few  lines  shown  in  the 
drawings  should  assist  the  worker,  but  the  success 
of  this  exercise  depends  upon  the  knowledge  by 
observation  acquired  by  the  carver.  The  cuts  repre- 
senting this  fur  should  not  be  executed  on  too  fine  or 
small  a  scale.  In  the  suggestion  of  lines  shown  on  the 
squirrel  (Fig.  132)  there  is  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 
In  carving  the  tail  of  this  animal  it  would  be  as  well 
to  treat  it  just  a  little  decoratively,  letting  the  V  or 
parting  cuts  follow  the  general  outline  in  slight  radia- 
tion and  in  long  sweeping  cuts.  The  ears  are  also 
cut  up  into  feather-like  tufts. 

A  good  plan  would  be  to  treat  the  fur  in  tufts  or 
masses  somewhat  after  the  shading  lines,  leaving  the 
other  parts  practically  smooth.  The  drawings  are 
those  of  general  outline  only,  so  that  it  is  as  well  to 
remember  this  and  to  break  the  edges,  thus  suggest- 
ing hair  at  the  finishing  off.  Hares  have  longer  ears  and 
hind  legs  than  wild  rabbits.  The  position  chosen  for 
the  two  in  the  panel  is  that  common  to  hares  when 
alert.  If  preferable,  the  ears  of  the  nearer  animal 
can  be  depressed  as  in  Fig.  133.  The  erect  hare  will 
be  the  most  troublesome  to  carve,  being  full  faced, 
there  being  some  difficulty  in  getting  sufficient  relief 
to  model  it  properly.  A  section  is  given  of  both  hares 
which  should  be  of  assistance.  The  illustrations  of 
the  blocking  out  are  given  as  usual ;  also  the  contour 
is  shown  on  the  drawings  by  means  of  sectional  lines. 
(Figs.  129  [3],  132,  and  134.) 

To  observe  how  the  fur  lies  on  the  body  of  a  tame 
rabbit  would  be  of  assistance  to  the  student,  as  it  is 
so  like  a  hare  in  general  form.  In  the  modelling  of  the 
feet  and  head,  however,  remember  that  the  hare  is 
thinner  and  shows  more  bone. 

To  those  who  find  it  easier,  the  heads  of  these 
animals  can  be  cut  first  on  the  half-oval  method, 
treating  the  body  in  the  same  way  (see  Fig.  136), 
the  details  being  seen  to  later. 

119 


XVIII.— THE   CARVING   OF 
AMORINO  HEADS  ON  BRACKETS 

THE  pediments,  entablatures,  etc.,  of  the  Tudor 
and  early  Renaissance  periods  were  often  decor- 
ated by  the  introduction  of  angel  and  amorino 
brackets ;  that  is,  the  consoles  or  supporting 
billets  were  decorated  by  the  introduction  of 
the  head  and  shoulders  of  human  figures,  mostly 
with  wings.  These  were  used  to  add  decorative  value 
to  the  building. 

A  proper  and  careful  study  of  this  element  brings 
us  to  a  very  interesting  branch  of  woodcarving,  but 
one  that  needs  careful  study  and  handling.  A  certain 
knowledge  of  anatomy  is  very  useful,  in  so  far  as  its 
influence  on  outward  form  is  concerned.  Of  course 
we  are  unable  to  treat  of  that  here,  except  to  call 
attention  to  the  general  shape  of  the  skull  of  a  young 
child,  and  to  compare  the  same  with  that  of  an  adult. 
(See  Fig.  137.)  This  at  least  is  very  important.  As 
the  illustrations  in  this  chapter  treat  of  the  heads  of 
amorini  only,  attention  is  especially  called  to  the 
facial  angle  in  the  typical  head  of  an  infant.  The  slope 
is  more  or  less  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  an 
adult ;  in  fact,  the  forehead  and  the  whole  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  skull  are  much  more  pronounced. 
As  age  proceeds  the  face  enlarges  out  of  all  proportion 
to  the  rest  of  the  skull.  There  are,  of  course,  exceptions, 
but  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  easier  to  suggest 
youth  by  general  form  in  woodcarving  than  by  means 
of  soft  outline  and  expression. 

In  wood  it  is  better  to  make  use  of  the  bold  masses 
that  Nature  gives  us  ;  consequently  enlarge  the  upper 
part  of  the  head,  and  keep  the  face  small  as  in  our 

120 


The  Carving  of  Amorino  Heads 

examples.  A  model  method  of  starting  this  work 
would  be  to  block  out  in  clay  the  general  shape  of  a 
child's  head  in  the  position  required,  and  cut  this  out 
in  successive  stages  as  a  preliminary  study  to  working 
in  the  wood.  Repairs  and  correction  can  be  made 
in  the  clay  which  are  impossible  in  the  wood.  There 
is  no  need  to  work  the  clay  model  up  to  a  high  finish  ; 
it  will  have  answered  its  purpose  when  it  has  given  us 
some  idea  of  how  to  start. 

A  pleasing  child's  head  can  always  be  carved  (care 
being  taken)  if  these  few  simple  rules  are  followed  : 
1st,  that  the  general  shape  of  the  skull  is  of  the  most 
importance  ;  2nd,  that  the  face  should  be  kept  com- 
paratively small ;  3rd,  that  the  lips  should  suggest  their 
first  use,  the  age  of  suckling  (see  Fig.  137  [5]) ;  4th, 
that  all  the  features  are  well  rounded  and  plump. 
Figs.  137  (6  and  7)  are  views  of  a  head  in  high  relief, 
and  sketches  of  several  stages  in  their  development 
are  given  in  Nos.  8,  9,  and  10  of  the  same  illustration. 
The  wings  can  be  used  in  almost  any  position  required , 
providing  they  look  as  if  they  are  properly  attached 
to  the  top  of  the  shoulder. 

In  No.  11  we  have  an  example  of  a  head  in  lower 
relief,  the  gradual  development  of  which  is  suggested 
in  Nos.  12  and  13  ;  note  again  the  proportions  of  the 
head  and  the  bulging  forehead.  Mental  notes  should 
be  taken  from  Nature  as  the  chance  occurs  as  to  the 
proper  treatment  and  flow  of  the  lines  of  the  hair. 
This  should  be  treated  as  boldly  as  possible.  The 
general  masses  can  be  cut  up  in  parts  with  the  V-tool 
or  the  smaller  gouges.  It  is  impossible,  however,  to 
give  exact  instructions  on  a  matter  of  this  kind  ; 
each  must  do  his  best  to  suggest  all  that  he  thinks 
most  charming  in  the  general  proportions  and  ex- 
pression. 

A  note  of  warning  is  needed  as  regards  other  detail. 
Do  not  cut  the  wings  up  too  much  or  suggest  numer- 
al 


Woodcarving 


FIG.  137  (see  also  opposite) 

EXAMPLES  OF  AMORINO  CARVED  BRACKETS,  WITH  DETAILS 


122 


The  Carving  of  Amorino  Heads 


fig.  187  (continued) 

EXAMPLES  OF  AMORINO  CARVED  BRACKETS,  WITH  DETAILS 


123 


IVoodcarving 

ous  features.  This  makes  the  work  look  fussy.  The 
same  rale  relates  to  the  hair,  the  most  difficult  part 
of  all  being  able  to  tell  when  to  leave  off.  In  work- 
shops we  have  found  it  useful  to  have  a  medium  sized 
model  of  the  general  masses  of  a  child's  head  (block 
model  of  the  skull,  etc.)  made  in  plaster.  This  we  have 
been  in  the  habit  of  imbedding  with  a  slab  of  clay 
in  the  position  required  ;  it  can  be  pressed  in  fol- 
lower relief  or  vice  versa.  Fig.  137  (11)  was  worked  in 
this  way.  For  full  relief  the  wood  should  not  be  less 
than  8  in.  square.  They  are  often  required  cut  to  a 
smaller  scale,  but  it  is  not  good  for  beginners  to  do 
this. 

The  general  use  of  the  amorino  and  angel  bracket 
can  be  seen  in  the  supporting  corbels  of  the  timber 
roofs  in  our  ancient  churches,  and  in  the  cornice  of 
rood  screens,  pulpits,  etc.,  of  the  Tudor  periods. 
They  can  also  be  found  in  many  examples  of  Eliza- 
bethan furniture,  and  the  extensive  use  of  the  gro- 
tesque head  of  the  Renaissance  period  is  well  known. 


124 


XIX.-CARVING   GROTESQUE 
HEADS   AND   MASKS 

^HE  examples  which  dealt  of  amorinos  and 
angel  brackets  are  followed  in  this  chapter  by 
the  treatment  of  the  grotesque  head  or  mask. 
The  application  of  heads  and  masks  was  so 
often  used  in  past  times  for  purposes  of  decora- 
tion that  it  is  almost  a  necessity  for  woodcarvers 
to  have  some  general  knowledge  of  how  to  get  about 
the  carving  of  these.  The  heads  and  faces  chosen  here 
are  governed  by  the  same  principle  as  the  angel  heads 
already  treated.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that,  for 
the  purposes  of  woodcarving,  the  broad  principles  of 
form  and  expression  only  should  be  used.  The  more 
subtle  expressions  that  can  be  shown  in  modelled  and 
smoothly-rounded  form  in  clay,  wax,  or  marble,  are 
not  so  suitable  for  treatment  in  wood.  No  doubt  such 
modelling  is  frequently  done  in  a  satisfactory  manner, 
but  the  fact  remains  that  the  labour  spent  in  working 
out  such  expressions  in  wood  is  not  only  difficult,  but 
is  really  unsuitable  for  the  material. 

To  carve  a  head  or  mask  such  as  that  shown  in 
Fig.  138  it  is  desirable  to  make  some  partial  study  of 
the  bones  of  the  skull.  Upon  these  bone  forms  only 
the  most  important  muscles  should  be  shown  in  the 
carving — forms  that  are  decided  and  easily  read. 
Note  the  hollow  of  the  eyes,  the  treatment  of  the 
cheek  bones,  the  frontal  bone  of  forehead,  the  nasal 
eminence,  and  the  general  lines  of  the  jaw.  Exag- 
geration is  the  chief  characteristic  of  grotesque  forms. 
For  example,  if  it  is  required  to  represent  amusement 
or  laughter,  the  expansion  of  the  mouth  should  be 
large — practically    from    ear    to    ear — and    the    eyes 

125 


IVoodcarving 

contracted  and  narrow.  For  fright,  horror,  or  such- 
like expression,  the  eyes  should  be  nearly  circular, 
although  they  can  be  sunk  under  the  brows.  The 
expression  of  anger  is  indicated  by  contracted  brows. 
But  the  most  satisfactory  of  grotesque  heads  are 
those  which,  while  suggesting  their  human  and  animal 
origin,   go   beyond   it   into   the   fantastic.      They  are 


FIG.     138. TYPE     Or    LONG,     NARROW     MASK,     SHOWING 

SIDE    AND    FRONT   VIEWS 


then  purely  decorative  and  interesting.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  the  masks,  etc.,  of  the  Renaissance  period 
are  so  satisfactory.  The  hair,  the  beard,  etc.,  take  on 
a  leaf-like  treatment ;  the  ears  are  sometimes  out  of 
all  proportion  and  are  treated  like  the  wings  of  the 
bat ;    other  features  are  also  exaggerated. 

During    the    Elizabethan    period    of    architecture 
these  masks  were  made  much  use  of,  and  many  fine 

12u 


Carving  Grotesque  Heads  and  Masks 

specimens  can  be  found  carved  over  fire-places, 
doorways,  etc.  They  mostly  take  the  place  of  a  con- 
sole or  shallow  bracket  ;  if  they  are  well  carved  they 
are  a  favourite  to  this  day,  and  there  is  a  wide  demand 
for  this  class  of  work.  No  ameunt  of  description  can 
give  such  a  satisfactory  insight  into  the  treatment 
of  these  heads  as  would  a  proper  study  of  a  real  skull 
or  a  cast. 

These  grotesque  heads  are  cut  in  all  sizes.  A  be- 
ginner in  this  class  of  work  should  not  cut  one  out  of  a 
piece  of  wood  less  than  12  in.  by  6  in.  by  6  in.  ;   larger 


FIO.  139. — TYPE  OF  WIDE  AND  SHORT  MASK  ;     SIDE  AND 
FRONT    VIEWS,    WITH    SKETCH    OF    SKULL 

would  be  better  for  good  practice.  Afterwards,  when 
skill  is  obtained,  carve  to  requirements.  Such  heads 
fall  under  two  main  divisions  :  the  long  and  narrow, 
and  the  wide  and  short.  (See  Figs.  138  and  139.)  In 
practice  they  represent  consoles  of  those  proportions. 
In  setting  about  the  work,  as  illustrated,  saw  (or 
boldly  cut)  out  the  main  divisions,  as  shown  in  section, 
Fig.  140  and  141 ;  this  is  a  block  view,  but  do  not 
cut  away  too  close.  Always,  as  we  have  remarked 
many  times  before,  have  enough  wood  left  to  give 
room  for  finishing  cuts.  A  bench  screw,  as  Fig.  142, 
should  be  added  to  the  list  of  tools  ;    this  is  inserted 

127 


Woodcarving 

into  the  back  of  the  piece  of  wood  to  be  carved  as 
shown  in  Fig.  143.  A  bench  screw  is  better  than  an 
ordinary  vice  for  some  work,  as  it  is  possible  to  move 
the  wood  to  any  angle  of  horizontal  radiation,  enabling 


FIG.    140  FIG.    141 

SHOWING   THE    SECTIONAL   BLOCK   TREATMENT   OP   MASK 
AS    FIG.    138 


easy  cutting  on  all  sides,  as  well  as  on  the  front. 
Square  cutting  should  be  the  rule,  and  this  should  be 
kept  to  as  far  as  possible  all  through.  Whatever 
rounded  form  is  necessary  should  be  pared  off  at  the 
very  last.    The  mouldings  (if  any)  at  the  top  and  base 


128 


Carving  Grotesque  Heads  and  Masks 

can  be  added  afterwards  with  independent  pieces  of 
wood  if  required  to  leave  more  of  the  original  wood 
for  the  carving  of  the  head. 

In  setting  out  and  cutting,  leading  types  should 
be  adhered  to,  so  that  a  sound  method  is  acquired. 
In  Fig.  139  a  Negroid  form  is  taken,  as  the  general 
outline  of  the  skull  shows.  By  placing  human  faces, 
grotesquely  treated,  upon  the  outline  of  the  skull 
formation  of  the  animal   world,   suggestions  can  be 


FIG.    142. — BENCH   SCREW 


FIG.    143. — HOW    THE    BENCH 
SCREW    IS    USED 


made  representing  the  different  virtues  and  vices 
which  these  creatures  are  supposed  to  symbolise,  and 
it  is  possible  to  make  one's  work  extremely  interest- 
ing when  the  designs  are  carefully  thought  out  and 
applied. 

Little  has  been  said  as  to  cutting,  as  by  a  careful 
reading  of  the  preceding  chapters  sufficient  can  be 
gathered  to  carry  out  the  tool  work.  Oak  or  walnut 
or  any  other  close-grained  wood  can  be  used  for  the 
purpose  of  carving  these  grotesque  heads. 


129 


XX.-CARVING    GROTESQUES: 
THE    GRIFFIN 


IN  the  carving  of  grotesques  one  or  two  forms 
are  in  common  use,  derived  as  they  are  from  the 
antique.  In  early  times  they  had  a  distinctive 
symbolic  meaning,  and  although  to  place  the  head 
of  a  bird  with  wings  upon  the  body  of  an  animal, 
created  (so  to  speak)  a  monster,  yet  looked  at 
from  the  symbolic  point  of  view,  it  was,  when  the 
attributes  of  the  creature  were  understood,  a  reason- 
able enough  proceeding. 

Such  an  object  was  the  Griffin,  composed  of  the 
head  and  wings  of  a  bird  with  the  body  of  a  lion. 
This  creation  was  considered  as  a  symbol  of  watch- 
fulness, and  as  such  has  been  used  as  a  crowning 
member  or  finial  upon  the  top  of  the  piers  that  flank 
the  gateways  of  public  buildings.  It  is  from  such 
forms  that  the  later  grotesques  have  descended,  great 
use  being  made  of  them  in  Gothic  and  early  Re- 
naissance times. 

There  has  recently  been  a  revival  of  these  objects, 
especially  for  interior  decoration.  They  are  suitable 
and  interesting  subjects  to  place  upon  the  principal 
newel  post  of  the  main  staircase  in  private  houses,  and 
were  thus  used  during  the  Elizabethan  period.  Many 
excellent  examples  are  to  be  met  with  in  old  mansions. 
The  celebrated  staircase  at  Crewe  Hall  has  several 
of  these  figures  placed  upon  the  newels  as  supporters 
of  shields. 

In  those  days  the  supply  of  wood  was  practically 
unlimited,  being  obtainable  from  the  oak  trees  of 
the  local  parks  and  forests.  Therefore  the  question 
of  scale  and  material  was  simplified.    It  is  not  difficult 

180 


Carving  Grotesques :    The  Griffin 

to  design  an  effective  Griffin  under  such  circumstances, 
but  as  the  people  of  this  generation  are  gradually 
using  up  most  of  the  available  timber  at  an  alarm- 
ing rate,  it  is  necessary,  both  by  reason  of  cost  and 


FIG.    144. — GRIFFIN 
ON   NEWEL  POST 


FIG.    145. — GENERAL 
SKETCH 


economy,   to   so   restrict   the   design    that   the    least 
possible  timber  shall  be  wasted. 

Now,  as  the  Griffin  or  grotesque  object  which  we 
are  treating  is  not  a  representation  of  any  living 
object,  only  parts  of  several  creatures  being  taken, 


131 


Woodcarving 


we  are  able  to  so  treat  it  that  it  will  be  moulded 
out  of  fairly  narrow  wood,  say,  6  in.  or  7  in. 
square  in  section  by.  say,  16  in.  or  18  in.  long. 
It  will  readily  be  seen  that  limitations  are  thus  im- 
posed which  governs  the  design  to  a  certain  degree. 


FIG.    146. — FRONT    VIEW 
OF   GRIFFIN 


FIG.    147. — SIDK    VIEW 
OF    GRIFFIN 


The  wings,  for  instance,  must  not  have  a  spread  of 
more  than  what  the  section  will  permit.  A  wider 
spread  and  a  better  effect  could  be  obtained  by  plac- 
ing the  wings  on  the  diagonal  line.  The  direction  of 
the  head  would  then  be  at  right  angles  to  this,  the 


132 


Carving  Grotesques :    The  Griffin 

line  of  direction  being  the  other  diagonal  (see  Fig. 
151);  but  this  method  requires  greater  skill,  as  the 
pattern  cannot  be  transferred  direct  upon  the  wood, 
as  in  our  example.  Thus  such  work  is  best  left  for 
those  who  have  had  an  art  training  in  modelling. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  basis  of  the  idea,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  148,  a,  &,  and  c.  If  a  skeleton  of  a  bird  is  studied 
and  the  detail  thus  seen  reduced  to  general  masses  (6), 
we  have  a  good  idea  of  how  to  start  on  our  work. 
The  necks  of  birds  and  reptiles  are  long  when  seen 
in  skeleton.  Note,  for  example,  how  much  like  a 
dragon  they  are  when  mounted  as  specimens  of  anat- 


PtO.    148. OUTLINES 

SHOWING    BASE    OF   IDEA 


FIG.    149. — PLAN 


omy  in  our  museums.  It  would  be  comparatively 
easy  to  make  a  rough  clay  model  of  the  general  masses 
of  our  Griffin,  and  the  work  would  be  eminently 
instructive.  If  any  carver  who  reads  these  chapters 
has  seen  how  taxidermists  wire  and  form  the  heads 
and  bodies  of  birds  and  animals,  it  would  give  them 
a  good  lead. 

In  our  illustration  of  the  front  view  of  a  Griffin 
(Fig.  146)  the  arrangement  of  the  wings  is  not  wholly 
satisfactory.  It  would  be  better  for  appearance  sake 
to  move  the  upper  parts  away  from  the  neck ;  the 
reason  they  are  shown  close  under  the  head  here  is 

133 


Woodcarving 

that,  unless  they  are  connected  to  the  neck  at  that 
spot,  the  neck  (being  thin  and  under  cut)  is  in  danger 
of  being  broken.  When  the  wings  are  connected  to 
the  back  of  the  head  greater  support  and  strength 
is  afforded.  There  is  no  reason  why  these  arrangements 
suggested  should  be  strictly  adhered  to  ;  the  idea,  well 
carried  out,  is  the  main  thing. 

In  carving,  it  would  be  best  to  transfer  a  general 
sketch,  as  shown  in  Fig.  145,  upon  both  sides  of  the 
wood,  and  then  to  cut  away  with  cross  cuts  by  means 


FIG.    150. P.rOCK    OF    HEAT) 


FIG.    151. SKETCH    PLAN* 


of  a  saw  or  large  chisel  those  parts  marked  solid 
black  upon  the  drawing ;  the  parts  shaded  are  cut 
away  afterwards.  The  instructions  that  have  been 
given  in  former  chapters  should  afford  an  insight 
into  our  methods,  and  with  the  help  of  the  sketches 
it  should  not  be  very  difficult  to  carve  an  interesting 
object. 

In  a  former  chapter,  dealing  with  the  cabriole  leg, 
we  gave  some  hints  on  the  treatment  of  the  feet 
and  other  parts  which  will  be  useful  for  reference. 

134 


Carving  Grotesques :    The  Griffin 

The  general  appearance  of  our  Griffin  is  seen  on 
a  newel  post,  as  shown  in  Fig.  144.  The  post  can 
be  of  any  suitable  design,  and  narrower  or  wider 
than  the  object  placed  upon  it,  as  desired.  Illustra- 
tions of  prehistoric  monsters,  the  remains  of  whicli 
have  been  found  in  fossil  form  in  alluvial  deposits, 
give  us  many  strange  forms  which  we  can  make  use 
of,  and  the  fact  of  their  having  once  existed  adds 
interest  as  well  as  mystery  to  our  creations  in  this 
direction. 

Any  hard,  close-grained  wood  would  do  for  this 
object,  but  it  must  be  tough  and  strong,  as  the  posi- 
tion of  a  newel  post  is  exposed  and  comes  in  for  a 
few  knocks,  no  matter  how  great  care  may  be  taken. 


DESIGN    FOK    CAliVED    BOOKSHELVES 


135 


XXI.- FIGURE   CARVING 


PANELLED    FIGURES 

A  CHAPTER  on  the  woodcarving  of  panels, 
etc.,  containing  the  human  figure  is  necessarily 
deficient  in  such  instruction  that  can  only  be 
imparted  by  demonstration  or  by  skill  obtained 
by  practice  in  the  workshop  and  studio.  All 
that  can  be  done  in  a  satisfactory  manner  is  to 
set  out  a  more  or  less  practical  line  of  thought  and 
method,  such  as  may  have  struck  one  in  working  from 
the  drawings  usually  supplied  to  craftsmen. 

Following  this  idea  we  show  a  figure  representing 
one  of  the  seasons,  Autumn,  Having  settled  upon 
the  size  and  proportion  of  our  panel,  say,  a  vertical 
one,  20  in.  high  by  8  in.  wide,  we  take  some  pose, 
the  leading  lines  of  which  tend  to  fit  into  our  panel 
in  a  satisfactory  manner.  (See  Figs.  153  and  159.) 
Carvers,  who  have  attended  art  classes,  and  have 
drawn  either  from  life  or  the  antique,  have  a  con- 
siderable advantage  over  others,  but  even  those  who 
attend  such  classes  rarely  give  adequate  thought  to 
the  sectional  values  of  the  models.  Unless  the  study 
of  light  and  shade  and  line  values  affords  some  know- 
ledge of  sectional  form,  it  is  of  little  use  to  the  crafts- 
man ;  therefore  it  is  very  good  in  practice,  when  a 
sketch  or  light-and-shade  drawing  is  made,  to  put 
in  horizontal  and  vertical  section  lines,  either  on 
the  actual  drawing  or  at  the  side.  The  drawing  would 
then  be  of  more  practical  use  and  would  be  valuable 
for  future  reference. 

Composition  and  flow  of  line  are  of  such  import* 
ance  to  a  successful  woodcarver  that,  although  design 
and   composition   hardly   come   within   the   scope   of 

ISO 


Figure  Carving 

these  articles,  we  cannot  quite  ignore  it.  Take  any 
outline  of  a  figure  that  appears  to  fill  a  given  space  in 
a  pleasing  manner  ;  then  search  out  in  your  mind 
for  the  reasons  of  the  same. 


op 
c  - 


FIG.    152. CARVED    PANEL,  TIG.    153. GENERAL   POSE 

'  AUTUMN  '  OF    FIGURE 


Our  present  example  is  developed  from  one  of  the 
ordinary  life  class  poses  used  in  Art  Schools.  (See 
Fig.  153.)    The  dotted  lines  are  run  in  upon,  the  nude 


137 


JVoodcarving 

figure,  showing  the  flow  of  the  drapery  and  the  cause 
of  it.     The  under  figure  or  body  should  always  be 


FIG.    154. — FIGURE   AFTER  FIG.    155. — VERTICAL 

FIRST    BLOCKING-OUT  SECTION 


studied  before  drapery  is  cut,  as  it  prevents  mistakes, 
drapery  being  entirely  governed  by  the  contour  of 
the  modelled  form.   Note  the  lines  of  suspension  across 


138 


Figure  Carving 

the  hips  A  A,  Fig.  153.  These  will  guide  important 
cuts,  which  should  be  directed  downwards  from  the 
points  of  suspension.  As  much  as  possible  should  be 
made  of  these  long  folds  in  sweeping  cuts.  Drapery 
should  be  kept  simple  and  the  folds  few  in  wood- 
carving  ;  it  is  better  to  reduce  rather  than  increase 
the  number  shown. 

We  will  now  assume  that  the  design  has  been 
increased  to  the  required  size  by  means  of  the  well- 
known  method  of  squared  lines  or  spaces.  When 
this  is  transferred  to  the  wood,  cut  or  set  in  the  outline 
of  the  figure  and  the  general  masses  of  the  accessories. 


FIG.    156. — DETAIL   OF    FEET 


When  this  setting  in  has  been  done,  gouge  out  the 
parts  marked  black  in  Fig.  153  to  a  depth  of  about 
§  in.,  working  from  the  outside  inwards.  The  deeper 
part  of  the  cut  will  then  be  close  to  the  figure.  If 
this  is  cleaned  out  well  it  will  give  a  good  start.  One 
thing  that  must  not  be  forgotten  is  to  keep  the  figure 
full  in  these  first  cuttings,  as  our  drapery  and  detail 
has  to  be  cut  upon  what  is  left. 

After  releasing  the  wood  and  working  all  over 
the  ground,  our  wood  should  have  somewhat  the 
appearance  of  that  shown  in  Fig.  154.  Section  lines 
are  shown  in  a  horizontal  direction  on  all  the  impor- 

139 


JVoodcarving 

tant  parts  of  the  body.  For  a  central  and  vertical 
section,  see  Fig.  155.  Everything  should  be  cut  on 
the  square  system  at  first,  leaving  plenty  of  room 
above  for  detail.  The  feet  and  hands  are  cut  in  the 
same  manner.  (See  Fig.  156,  a,  b,  and  c,  and  Fig.  157, 
d,  e,  and/.)  Do  not  trouble  about  the  detail  of  the  head  ; 
that  will  make  a  later  study.  Block  it  in  as  in  the 
upper  part  of  Fig.  154.  Then  model  out  the  drapery, 
paying  particular  attention  to  the  section  lines. 
Curves  of  drapery  could  be  cut  in  facets  with  advan- 


FIG.    158. — DRAPEltY    SECTIONS  FIG.    159. — LINES    OF  POSE 


tagc.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  mark  in  the  points  of  highest 
relief  (see  vertical  section)  with  white  chalk,  other- 
wise the  figure  might  be  cut  too  flat.  It  would  be  best, 
where  possible,  to  refer  to  some  well-known  and  nicely 
modelled  figure  of  similar  pose. 

As  this  example  is  in  half-relief,  the  back  alone 
being  attached  to  the  ground,  the  front  only  need 
be  studied.  The  accessories,  such  as  the  corn,  etc., 
should  be  kept  subordinate  to  the  figure,  and  be  in  as 
low  relief  as  possible ;    the  vine  at  the  top  need  be 

140 


Figure  Cawing 

suggested  only.  As  long  as  the  edges  near  the  figure 
are  well  treated  such  parts  can  be  worked  up  accord- 
ing to  individual  requirements,  this  being  a  lesson  on  the 
general  setting  out  of  a  figure  the  principal  attention 
is  given  to  it. 

Fig.  158  is  a  drawing  of  the  drapery  with  section 
lines  marked  upon  it,  such  as  they  should  appear 
when  the  drapery  is  finished  off. 


DESIGN    FOR    CARVED    FRAME 


141 


XXII.— A  CARVED   MILITARY 
PANEL 

THE  previous  chapter  dealt  with  the  method 
of  setting  out  a  full  length  figure  in  half-relief, 
or  mezzo-relievo.  This  method  of  working  has 
been  kept  in  mind  throughout  this  volume. 
From  the  very  beginning  of  our  work  the  general 
scheme  and  leading  lines  have  been  suggested. 
These,  to  be  successful,  must  be  arranged  in  a  pleasing 
manner.  The  grouping  is  very  important,  but  it  can 
be  readily  understood  that  it  is  easier  to  take  some 
subject  or  period  that  does  not  lend  itself  to  minute 
criticism  to  the  same  degree  as  the  costume  and 
equipment  of  modern  life. 

It  is  not  a  healthy  sign  to  run  away  from  difficulties  ; 
so  here  we  set  about  a  military  panel,  the  idea  being 
that  the  figures  will  do  for  almost  any  infantry  corps. 
Matters  of  detail  can  be  altered  or  added  to  at  the 
option  of  the  carver,  and  the  arms  at  the  top  corner 
of  panel  can  be  adapted  to  suit  any  regiment. 

The  composition  is  shown  with  the  leading  lines 
in  Fig.  160.  There  the  general  pose  and  curved  lines 
promise  a  more  pleasing  appearance  than  it  is  possible 
to  obtain  in  the  treatment  of  modern  uniform.  It  is 
as  well,  however,  to  remember  that  the  pose  is  there, 
although  covered  up  in  stiff  clothing. 

It  is  the  use  of  right  or  straight  lines  enclosing 
the  outline  of  the  figures  that  will  give  the  best  guide 
for  starting  cuts.  The  parting  or  V-tool  would  be 
useful  to  line  out  with,  taking  care  to  keep  the  form 
angular  at  first  instead  of  round.  The  rounding  should 
be  in  all  cases  the  very  last  work  to  be  done.  Fig  162 
will  give  a  general  idea  of  the  first  cuttings,  shown 

142 


A  Carved  Military  Panel 


FIG.    160. — DESIGN    i-OJR    A   MILITARY    PANEL 
(REPRESENTING   THE    FINISHED    CARVING) 


143 


Woodcarving 

in  the  square  facets.  To  more  readily  follow  the  scheme 
as  shown,  work  in  a  strong  side  light,  so  that  when 


HO.    161. — THJC    COMPOSITION 


cut  the  shadows  are  as  in  the  illustration.    So  far  as 
relief  is  concerned,  a  simple  and  effective  method  is 


144 


A  Carved  Military  Panel 

to  cut  off  the  face  of  the  panel  into  rectangular  planes, 
as  shown  at  Fig.  162a,  and  then  trace  the  detail  be* 


FIG.    162. — FIRST   STAGE 


longing  to  each  plane  upon  those  surfaces.     This  is 
only  the  correct  method  when  it  is  desired  to  have 


145 


tVoodcarving 

the  figures  in  as  much  relief  as  the  wood  will  allow, 
and  when  no  side  wood  is  to  be  left. 

Other  detail  (except  the  regimental  arms)  is  simply 
incised  in  with  the  V-tool.  When  the  method  of  cutting 
the  background  is  not  as  in  Fig.  162,  it  is  better  to 
base  it  upon  the  section  of  a  saucer,  as  mentioned 
in  former  articles.  It  should  be  understood  that  the 
method  mentioned  and  illustrated  in  Fig.  162  is  a 
good  one  when  it  is  desirable  to  have  thin  edges  for 
framing. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  endeavour  to  get  much  detail 
into  the  hands,  etc.,  of  the  figures.  A  broad  con- 
ception of  such  is  the  safest  to  attempt.  To  round 
fingers  and  other  detail  to  a  minute  extent  usually 
means  disaster,  and  in  most  cases,  does  not  add  to 
the  beauty.  Woodcarving,  more  than  any  other 
craft,  has  limits  which  should  be  frankly  recognised. 
It  is  possible  to  do  wonderful  things  by  means  of  care 
and  patience,  but  beyond  certain  limits  it  hardly 
pays  in  the  long  run.  As  an  example,  if  the  detail 
was  cut  on  work  that  had  reached  the  stage  of  Fig. 
162  (that  is,  not  much  more  than  incised  in),  very 
little  more  is  needed,  although  this  little  must  be 
done  with  great  care.  In  old  carving  the  apparent 
ease  and  the  simple  methods  in  which  the  work  ap- 
pears to  be  done  are  its  chief  charms. 

One  or  two  chisels  and  the  V-tool  are  all  that  we 
need  to  get  as  far  as  in  Fig.  162  ;  the  gouges  are  best 
left  to  finish  up  with.  Experience  teaches  that,  if 
the  gouges  are  used  for  this  sort  of  work  from  the 
start,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get  the  carving  to  look 
crisp  and  workmanlike  afterwards.  For  the  hands 
your  own  may  be  used  as  a  gui(Je,  working  with  a 
glass.  Never  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  you  are  work- 
ing in  planes. 


146 


XXIII.— CARVED   HEADS    FROM 
SHADED   DRAWINGS 

THE  difficulties  of  carving  from  a  shaded  draw- 
ing or  a  photograph  would  be  greatly  reduced 
if  some  reorganised  system  of  expressing  planes 
could  be  devised.  These  planes  should  be  shown 
by  the  effect  of  the  light  coming  from  one 
direction  only  ;  and,  after  the  working  drawing 
is  made,  some  indicating  mark  should  be  placed  upon 
it,  giving  the  direction  of  the  rays  of  light.  Subtle 
and  clever  drawings  that  give  a  pleasing  and  artistic 
effect,  although  successful  from  an  impressionist  and 
art  point  of  view,  are  misleading  to  work  from. 

Planes  (or,  in  other  words,  facets)  of  different  sizes 
according  to  requirements  are  the  governing  principle 
of  all  relief  work.  There  need  be  little  fear  but  that 
the  carver  will  round  or  smooth  his  work  up  sufficiently. 
The  principal  endeavour  should  be  to  keep  the  carving 
in  simple  planes  or  facets  as  long  as  possible.  This 
method  gives  force  and  character  to  the  work.  In 
Figs.  163  and  164  are  shown  two  drawings.  Fig.  163 
is  from  a  sketch,  Fig.  164  from  a  photograph.  In 
both  cases  the  facets  or  planes  are  purposely  exag- 
gerated, and  only  just  sufficient  drawing  is  done  to 
indicate  our  idea. 

The  methods  of  the  artists  in  the  early  days  of 
pen  and  ink  work  were  more  useful  from  our  point 
of  view,  owing  to  their  directness  and  the  use  of  the 
right  or  straight  line.  With  but  an  elementary  know- 
ledge of  anatomy,  work  could  be  done  from  their 
drawings  much  more  easily  than  at  the  present  time. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  at  some  future  time  a  standard 
of  technical  drawing  for  craftsmen  will  be  introduced 

147 


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Woodcarving 

which,  while  being  artistic,  will  yet  mean  something 
definite  in  the  way  of  planes  and  mass  of  general 
form.  Our  schools  neglect  this  principle.  Broad 
obliterating  effects  are  aimed  at  which  (although 
probably  the  right  style  for  producers  of  pictures) 
are  of  little  or  no  use  to  craftsmen,  unless  they  have 
had  more  than  ordinary  training.  It  has  been  proved 
that  very  many  students  cannot  put  a  correct  section 
line  upon  a  drawing  of  their  own  execution  when  away 


FIG.    168. SECTION    LINES. 


FIG.    169. — SIDE   VIEW 


from  the  actual  model.  This  should  be  remedied  by 
practice  ;  it  is  half  the  battle  to  realise  the  main 
planes.        ) 

For  example,  see  Fig.  166.  Note  the  direction  of 
light,  and  after  doing  so  place  your  wood  so  that 
when  cut  it  will  show  the  same  light  and  shade  in 
the  planes.  Keep  it  in  that  position  as  much  as  possible 
while  carving.  If  this  is  not  practical,  put  your  work 
from  time  to  time  in  the  required  position  in  order 
to   see  how  things   are  going. 

150 


Carved  Heads  from  Shaded  Drawings 

The  process  by  the  above  method  is  as  follows  : 
Fig.  165  is  the  first  cutting  or  massing  out ;  Fig.  166 
the  second  stage  of  same  ;  and  Fig.  163  is  a  drawing 
reducea  to  lines  suggesting  facets.  The  influence  of 
the  skull  is  shown  in  Fig.  167.  No  hair  lines  are  shown 
on  these  drawings,  it  being  felt  that  the  carver  will 
go  for  them  quite  enough  at  the  final  cutting  without 


FIG.    170. — SECTION 


FIG.    171. — SHOWING    LIGHT 
FROM  ABOVE 


any  further  suggestion  from  us,  except  that  the 
slightly  hollow  cuts  usually  used  to  represent  hair 
should  run  in  a  proper  and  natural  direction.  Common 
sense  and  a  little  observation  should  be  a  sufficient 
guide. 

In  practice,  or  for  learning  purposes,  these  heads 
should  not  be  cut  in  a  circle  of  less  than  7  in.  or  8  in. 


151 


JVoodcarving 

in  diameter.  The  idea  is  not  so  much  to  copy  as  to 
apply  the  principle  or  method  shown  to  some  good 
illustration  that  it  may  be  the  wish  of  the  carver 
to  execute.  In  Fig.  164  we  have  the  light  coming 
from  the  direction  opposite  to  that  of  Fig.  163,  but  it 
is  drawn  on  the  same  principle.  The  section  lines 
are  given  in  Fig.  168,  and  a  suggested  probable  side 
view  in  Fig.  169  ;  but,  as  the  depth  of  panels  is 
limited,  Fig.  170  is  given  to  show  a  section  over  which 
the  idea  is  worked  out.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  it  is  possible  and  usual  to  work  in  much 
lower  relief  than  this.  Much,  of  course,  depends  on 
requirements,  and  in  every  case  it  is  a  good  practice 
to  work  as  deep  as  the  wood  will  allow  as,  owing  to 
the  usual  or  natural  colour  of  the  wood,  light  and  shade 
is  more  or  less  absorbed,  and  what  would  look  well 
modelled  in  plaster  or  marble  is,  may  be,  lost  in 
woodcarving.  Thus  the  bolder  work  is  the  more 
pleasing. 

Nothing  has  been  said  here  about  the  cutting  away 
of  the  background  for,  although  some  of  us  prefer  to 
cut  away  from  the  outside,  deepening  towards  the 
head — a  very  effective  method — yet  it  is  not  always 
the  best  way.  Here  again  other  considerations  must 
guide  the  carver. 

Fig.  171  is  an  example  of  the  same  head  with  the 
light  more  directly  above,  it  being  sometimes  useful 
to  think  out  several  views. 

No  more  intelligent  form  of  study  can  be  taken  than 
that  of  practice  in  fairly  dry  clay.  This  should  be 
applied  to  a  firm  surface  (say  a  slate  or  a  piece  of 
board),  the  clay  being  pressed  on  in  the  shape  of  a 
slab  the  same  thickness  as  the  wood  would  be.  Cut 
the  clay  out  as  in  carving,  either  with  modelling  tools 
or  (preferably)  carving  tools,  which  must  be  wiped 
clean  and  oiled  and  dried  afterwards  to  prevent  rust. 
If  clay  is  used  as  a  preliminary  study  and  mass  model, 

102 


Carved  Heads  from  Shaded  Drawings 


it  is  possible  to  renew  any  part  cut  out  by  mistake.  The 
effect  of  light  and  shade  can  be  gauged,  and  good 
wood  can  be  saved  for  a  final  attempt. 

All  the  above  directions  relate  of  course  to  the 
working  from  light  and  shade  drawings,  upon  which 
we  have  to  assume  our  own  sections.  Working  from 
the  actual  relief  model  is  a  different  thing,  as  the 
carver  has  it  before  him  to  observe. 


CHIF-CAUVXD   DJCSXON    FOB   TIM&PlfiCB 


168 


XXIV.-CARVING   ON   EARLY 
VICTORIAN    FURNITURE 


DURING  late  years  it  has  been  the  custom  to 
much  abuse  the  furniture  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  especially  that  known  as  the  Early 
Victorian.  Now,  though  much  of  this  abuse  may 
be  well  deserved,  owing  to  the  excessively  heavy 
build  and  the  solid  style  of  its  ornamentation, 
some  redeeming  points  have  been  overlooked. 


FIG.     172. HALF     OF     PEDIMENT     WITH     EARLY     VICTORIAN 

CARVING        (SKETCH    OF    LEADING    LINES    IS    GIVEN    ABOVE.) 


In  the  best  examples,  such  as  are  seen  in  sideboards, 
pediments,  overmantels,  couch  ends,  etc.,  we  often 
come  across  examples  of  a  vigorous  and  characteristic 
treatment  of  the  acanthus  leaf ;  see  the  inside  of  knob- 
like terminals  used  at  the  end  of  some  of  the  lobes  in 
our  illustrations,  Figs.  172,  173,  and  174,  and  also 
notice  the  concave  hollows  that  lie  beneath  them. 
These  give  a  contrast  and  variety  to  the  other  parts 

154 


Carving  on  Early  Victorian  Furniture 

of   the    leaf   which,    when    well    rendered,   are    very- 
effective. 

The  furniture  of  that  period  was  mostly  made  of 
good  hard  and  sound  mahogany  of  fine  red  colour, 
and  it  was  also  the  custom  to  polish  any  of  the  smooth 
and  rounded  parts  that  lent  themselves  to  that  process, 


fig.  173  (a,  6,  and  c). — enlarged  detail  of  ornament 

ON   PEDIMENT 


a  proceeding  that  it  is  not  always  possible  to  defend. 
There  is  still  a  good  deal  of  this  furniture  in  existence, 
and  its  many  excellent  qualities  make  it  well  worth  pre- 
serving and  in  some  cases  adding  to  by  new  work  in 
that  style.  It  is  for  such  a  purpose  that  this  chapter 
is  written. 

155 


IVoodcarving 

Characteristics. — Care  should  be  taken  to  separate 
the  different  styles  of  working.  It  would  be  well  to 
get  the  idea  impressed  into  the  mind  that  we  are  here 
treating  with  what  is  eventually  gouge  work,  the  main 
effect  being  produced  by  these  tools  of  different  con- 
tour. The  sharp  edges  near  the  turn-over  of  lobes  are 
obtained  by  the  juxtaposition  of  one  gouge  form  to 


FIG.    174. — PORTION    OF    OVERMANTEL,    SHOWING    STYLE    OK 
CARVED    DECORATION.      NOTE    DETAIL   AT   O 


another ;  the  hollows  behind  the  knobs  are  cut  out 
sharp  and  clear,  such  a  cut  as  can  be  put  into  a  piece 
of  cheese.  When  well  done  the  work  has  a  strong  and 
fleshy  look,  and  gives  an  impression  of  the  solid  Eng- 
lish character  behind  it.  That  it  was  used  in  a  wrong 
manner  does  not  mean  that  it  was  wholly  wrong,  or 
that  we  have  not  made  a  mistake  in  going  to  the  other 

166 


Carving  on  Early  Victorian  Furniture 

extreme  by  calling  everything  good  that  has  a  weak 
and  spindley  outline  with  a  slight  Chippendale  char- 
acter. 

When  the  firelight  plays  upon  the  varied  and  pol- 
ished surface  of  the  remains  of  our  grandfather's 
furniture,  giving  charming  degrees  of  light  and  shade, 
there  are  many  who  will  feel  sorry  that  they  have, 
under  the  influence  of  fashion,  either  parted  with  or 


FIG.    175. EAKLY  VICTORIAN   CARVED   DECORATION 

APPLIED    TO    FRAME,    OVERMANTEL,    OR    OVERDOOR 


destroyed   many  pieces   they  would   now  view   with 
affection. 

The  examples  used  in  the  illustrations  are  taken 
from  impressions  which  these  have  made  upon  the 
carver.  The  contours  are  given  upon  some  of  the 
details  by  means  of  section  lines,  and  it  should  be 
be  noted  that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  difference  between 
this  style  of  cutting  and  that  in  which  angular  or  V 
tool  cuts  are  mostly  used.  V  or  angular  cutting  is 
easier  to  do,  and,  although  very  effective  in  its  way, 
has  a  monotonous  and  cheaper  look  than  the  class  of 

157 


IVoodcarving 

work  illustrated.  Good  gouge  work  requires  more 
skill  and  judgment,  with  a  necessity  for  much  cleaner 
cutting  and  finishing  off. 

A  method  of  using  the  side  view  of  a  leaf  for  end 
pieces  is  shown  in  Figs.  174  and  175,  the  intention 
being  to  give  a  lead  as  to  how  this  style  of  work  can 
be  used  to  best  advantage.  It  would  be  easy  with 
practice  to  adapt  detail  of  this  sort  to  fill  up  any  shape 
of  panel,  or  to  envelope  almost  any  outline  such  as 
the  Victorian  sofa  or  settee  back,  etc.  This  class  of 
carving  is  only  suitable  for  hard  woods,  such  as  walnut 
and  the  best  kind  of  mahogany ;  there  are  also  some 
very  good  woods  of  excellent  colour  that  have  been 
finding  their  way  from  our  colonies  that  may  eventually 
replace  the  best  kinds  of  mahogany,  now  getting  so 
scarce  and  costly.  To  those  who  wish  to  have  more 
practice  before  carving  for  use,  the  details  shown  in 
Fig.  173,  a,  6,  and  c,  would  make  good  and  useful 
exercises,  and  the  border  of  Fig.  174  could  be  used 
as  decoration  for  a  frame. 

Application  of  Early  Victorian  carving. — At 
Fig.  176  is  suggested  the  general  outline  of  a  sofa  or 
couch.  Upon  this  is  indicated  applied  carving  which 
should  occupy  the  spaces  in  a  suitable  manner.  The 
example  chosen  is  a  common  one,  and  should  be  well 
known  to  every  one,  there  being  a  great  number  in 
existence. 

Being  usually  made,  of  excellent  mahogany,  these 
sofas  are  rapidly  becoming  more  valuable  owing  to 
the  growing  scarcity  of  this  wood  and  the  consequent 
increase  of  prices.  Many,  unfortunately,  have  been 
destroyed  or  sold  for  a  mere  song,  owing  to  their 
being  out  of  fashion  and  also  to  their  heavy  and  solid 
British  character.  At  a  future  period,  at  the  turn  of 
the  wheel  of  fortune,  they  will  probably  be  much 
sought  after,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should 
not  be  made  at  the  present  day.   If  of  good  design  and 

160 


Carving  on  Early  Victorian  Furniture 

suitably  carved  they  should  be  a  source  of  comfort 
and  satisfaction. 

There  is  insufficient  space  here  to  go  into  the  details 
as  to  what  principles  govern  this  style.  It  is  enough 
to  note  that  the  Victorian  idea  was  in  this  case  in- 
fluenced by  what  is  known  as  the  French  Empire 
style,  the  outline  of  a  sofa  being  an  English  rendering 
of  the  latter.  Most  of  the  articles  that  we  see  about 
are  of  the  horsehair  period,  but  it  can  be  easily  realised 
that  there  are  possibilities  as  regards  effective  colour 
covering  to  contrast  or  to  harmonise  with  the  rich 
effect  of  the  polished  mahogany. 

The  back. — This  couch  could  also  be  made  of  walnut 
with  success.  The  principal  item  to  consider  is  to  keep 
the  cutting  bold  and  somewhat  rounded  on  its  outside 
edges.  There  should  be  nothing  small  and  fussy  about 
an  article  that  is  in  constant  use.  Detail  should  not 
be  too  much  undercut ;  broad  and  large  masses  may 
be,  to  a  more  or  less  extent,  as  their  size  protects 
them.  For  example  the  upper  halves  of  the  back  can 
be  deeply  cut,  provided  care  is  taken  that  sufficient 
attachment  is  left  to  hold  them  securely  to  the  ground. 
If  existing  examples  are  examined  it  will  be  noticed 
that  there  is  a  predominance  of  convex  or  rounded 
form  on  the  outlines  of  the  furniture  and  carving. 
The  general  idea  of  the  back  should  be  to  give  an 
impression  of  a  vigorous  sweep  of  cutting  from  the 
right  and  left  hand  corners  towards  the  centre,  giving 
the  pattern  a  line  of  direction  so  that  the  foliage 
appears  to  flow  round  the  central  cartouche.  It  is 
this  simple  arrangement  of  sweep  that  makes  many 
of  these  backs  satisfactory.  Unfortunately  there  arc 
many  examples  where  the  pattern  is  utterly  broken 
up  and  disjointed,  being  in  fact  an  almost  grotesque 
treatment  of  the  Rococo  style  of  detail  without  its 
charm. 

Cartouche. — We  come  now  to  another  and  im- 
portant part  of  the  scheme,  the  centre.     The  simple 

3  61  M 


Carving  on  Early  Victorian  Furniture 

form  of  cartouche  is  taken  as  it  answers  the  general 
purpose  we  have  in  view,  that  of  spacing  ;  but  it 
must  be  understood  that,  being  the  centre  of  the 
furniture  and  (so  to  speak)  the  crown  of  the  carving, 


181. — SHOWING 

INISHED        CARVING 
END    OF    SOFA 


^ssrf^ 


W///Mmmmf 


FIG.    182. — END  ; 

FIRST    STAGE    OF 

CARVING 


it  is  here  that  room  can  be  found  for  individual  prefer- 
ence in  the  way  of  cartouches  or  shields  carrying 
simple  coats  of  arms  or  monograms.  (See  Fig.  177.) 
The  impression  that  the  whole  back  should  give  is 
that    of  the   principle   of  sjrmmetry   or   symmetrical 

163 


Woodcarving 

arrangement.  The  bottom  line  of  the  centre  of  back 
should  be  straight  to  harmonise  with  the  line  of  the 
seat.  The  wood  part  of  the  seat,  which  should  be 
simple,  with  few  mouldings,  if  any,  can  be  divided 
into  surface  panels  as  in  Fig.  176. 

Ends. — The  most  difficult  parts  to  design  and  also 
to  carve  satisfactorily  are  the  carved  ends  or  arms 
(Figs.  181  and  182).  They  should  always  have  a  con- 
vex or  moulded  outline  as  they  are  the  most  liable  to 
come  in  contact  with  the  person,  and  it  is  also  better 
to  so  arrange  the  carving  so  that  the  foliage  should 
face  inwards  towards  the  centre.  The  carving  is  thus 
to  a  certain  extent  protected.   (See  Fig.  181.) 

The  one  thing  that  requires  impressing  on  the  mind 
of  the  worker  with  regard  to  this  type  of  carving  is 
that  it  should  have  the  appearance  of  being  full  and 
fleshy,  and  that  the  turned-over  ends  of  the  lobes  of 
the  leaves  should  be  a  little  thick  and  rounded  or 
knot -like.  Any  deep  cutting  to  get  light  and  shade 
should  be  on  the  inside,  as  Fig.  178.  It  is  a  matter  of 
choice  what  is  done  with  the  background.  It  can  be 
left  plain  with  advantage,  or,  if  treated  at  all,  should 
be  on  bold  lines  similar  to  the  example  shown.  At 
present  the  carver  is  more  or  less  governed  by  styles. 
That  being  the  case,  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  take 
lessons  from  the  best  examples  only,  and  to  steer 
wide  of  what  are  obviously  bad  features  in  detail. 
The  general  outline  of  the  furniture  does  not  rest 
with  the  carver,  but  with  the  designer. 


161 


XXV.— FESTOONS   OR   SWAGS 

DECORATED  catenary  curves,  known  as  festoons 
or  swags,  are  much  used  in  carved  work,  especi- 
ally in  architectural  details,  such  as  friezes, 
heads  of  panels  and  dado  borders.  They  were  a 
very  important  item  in  the  Renaissance  period, 
based  as  they  are  upon  the  suspension  of  a  cord 
or  other  flexible  material  from  two  points,  the  fulness 
of  which  cord  forms  a  graceful  curve.  When  they  are 
only  slightly  decorated — that  is  of  a  simple  chair-like 
arrangement — they  are  catenaries  ;  the  real  festoon 
is  heavier  and  fuller  in  general  appearance  (Fig.  183). 
Catenaries  were  much  used  in  the  Adam  period,  being 
formed  of  a  series  of  single  blossoms,  mostly  of  a  bell- 
like form  (Fig.  188). 

Carvers  are  often  called  upon  to  make  use  of  fest- 
oons. Much  of  the  work  of  Grinling  Gibbon  was  of 
this  type.  The  object  to  which  the  carving  is  to  be 
applied  governs  the  proportions  of  the  festoon.  Heavy 
groupings  of  floral  forms  would  be  rather  out  of  place 
on  very  light  furniture,  but  would  be  suitable  for  the 
heavier  styles,  panels  placed  over  fire  hearths,  friezes 
above  panelling,  and  in  some  cases  at  the  heads  of  the 
panels  themselves  (Fig.  185),  these  panels  being  of 
a  more  or  less  architectural  character.  Fig.  184  would 
do  for  a  panel  placed  over  a  fire  hearth,  or  for  a  treat- 
ment of  the  frieze. 

Fig.  183  gives  the  proportions  most  used  when  the 
festoon  is  required  to  be  full  and  the  carving  strong. 
The  usual  way  to  start  cutting  is  to  place  containing 
lines  around  the  outline  of  the  transfer,  and  then  to 
cut  the  ground  away,  leaving  the  festoon  as  in  Fig.  186. 
It  is  then  possible  to  release  the  wood  by  wrorking 
from  either  side.    When  the  general  forms  have  been 

165 


JVoodcarving 


166 


Festoons  or  Swags 

massed  out  the  deeper  parts  can  be  sunk  in.  This  can 
be  partly  done  by  boring  to  the  required  depth,  the 
carving  tools  being  afterwards  used  to  shape  these 
holes  into  the  required  outline.  Work  of  this  type 
looks  better  if  the  hollows  are  sunk  to  a  certain  amount 
of  blackness  or  depth. 

Many  architectural  festoons  are  of  simple  form, 
with  deep  holes  or  recesses  cut  in  the  under  part  of 
bell-shaped  floral  forms,  as  in  half  of  Fig.  190.  These 
were  for  broad  effects,  placed  high  up  ;  for  work  closer 
to  the  eye,  as  most  wood  carving  is,  something  more 
interesting  should  be  used,  and  following  on  more 
natural  lines.  A  good  general  effect  of  rich  floral 
growth  is  the  object  of  the  carver.  Roses  in  any  form, 
either  fully  or  partly  open,  can  always  be  introduced 
in  English  carving.  This  is  our  national  flower,  and 
has  always  been  the  favourite  for  use  in  festoons  or 
garlands.  Earlier  we  indicated  how  to  carve  a  spray 
of  roses  for  the  purposes  of  panel  decoration,  and  the 
methods  there  shown  and  the  manner  of  cutting 
apply  equally  to  this  article.  Festoons  are  in  better 
keeping  when  placed  above  panels,  and  not  directly 
upon  them  (see  Fig.  185). 

Good  taste  was  shown  in  the  use  of  the  lighter 
festoons  or  catenaries  in  the  Adam  style,  the  daisy 
chain-like  lightness  forming  a  pleasing  ornament  to 
the  furniture  of  that  period.  They  also  sometimes 
resemble  necklets  in  treatment  (see  Fig.  189).  There 
are  many  examples  of  festoons  to  be  met  with,  carved 
in  both  wood  and  stone.  The  two  guiding  principles 
of  cutting  differ  in  two  particulars  only ;  namely, 
those  festoons  that  are  required  to  look  compact, 
mainly  for  architectural  purposes,  and  those  which 
are  opened  out  and  cut  upon  a  lighter  or  more  spray- 
like principle.  Clusters  of  fruit  are  usually  bound  or 
kept  together  by  means  of  intertwining  ribbons. 
Such  festoons  should  be  classed  as   the  heavy  type, 

167 


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JVoodcarving 

flowers  and  leaves  being  the  best  to  use  for  the  more 
open  variety. 

Where  a  series  of  festoons  is  required  to  be  placed 
upon  a  smooth  panel,  as  in  a  frieze,  they  should  be  cut 
out  of  a  separate  piece  of  wood  and  applied,  as  the 
labour  and  the  waste  of  wood  required  in  order  to 
get  the  background  down  would  be  too  great  in  solid 
carving.  Sycamore,  lime,  pear  or  any  hard  and  close 
grained  wood  is  suitable.  Birch,  though  very  cheap 
in  some  localities,  is  unsuitable  except  for  practice,  as 
it  soon  becomes  worm  eaten  and  useless. 

Section  lines  are  given  on  Figs.  186  and  187.  The 
carving  tools  should  be  kept  very  sharp,  as  broken 
edges  or  torn  parts  are  not  so  easily  remedied  in  the 
carving  of  flowers  as  in  the  treatment  of  leaves.  A 
part  broken  out  of  the  centre  of  a  rose  or  some  such 
regular  flower  is  a  disaster.  As  festoons,  however,  arc 
opened  or  cut  away  from  either  side — that  is,  top  and 
bottom — and  as  the  curve  is  what  is  known  as  an  open 
one,  the  task  is  easier  than  may  at  first  appear. 


170 


XXVI.— CARVED  CONSOLES 
FOR  DOOR  CANOPY 

CARVING  for  building  or  architectural  purposes 
is  usually  of  a  slightly  different  type  from  that 
which  we  have  been  treating  in  these  articles. 
It  is  governed  by  different  considerations,  al- 
though the  styles  may  be  on  the  same  lines  as 
in  furniture.  Yet,  owing  to  the  many  and 
widely  different  positions  in  which  architectural 
carvings  are  placed,  variety  in  proportions,  etc,  to 
suit  individual  requirements  becomes  necessary. 

In  the  present  example  we  may  consider  a  design 
for  a  pair  of  carved  consoles,  or  brackets,  such  as  are 
used  to  carry  a  sort  of  covering  or  protection  over  the 
door  lintel  of  some  of  the  older  buildings  in  this 
country.  This  method  of  forming  a  slight  protection 
from  the  weather  has  been  revived  of  late  years  in 
smaller  houses.  There  are  two  general  types  of  these 
consoles  :  those  where  the  console  or  its  curves  lie 
in  a  more  or  less  horizontal  plane  like  our  present 
example,  and  those  in  which  the  console  is  arranged 
in  a  vertical  position. 

Usually  a  certain  amount  of  economy  has  to  be 
observed  in  carrying  out  this  class  of  work ;  and  this 
is  often  determined  by  what  the  builder  or  architect 
is  willing  to  supply  in  the  shape  of  wood,  unless  the 
worker  is  carrying  it  out  for  his  own  pleasure  or  benefit. 
Timber  suitable  for  such  purposes  is  more  likely  to  rise 
than  to  fall  in  price  ;  therefore,  it  is  as  well  to  practise 
economy.  In  this  case  it  would  be  a  saving  to  make 
the  bracket  out  of  two  pieces,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  193. 
The  best  wood  for  the  purpose  would  be  oak,  but  if 
that  was  found  to  be  too  expensive  in  such  large  work, 

171 


JVoodcarving 


FIG.  191. SKETCH  OF  CARVKD  CONSOLi 8  TO  CARRY 

DOOR  CANOPY 


172 


Carved  Consoles  for  Door  Canopy 

chestnut  would  answer  well,  provided  it  were  well 
chosen  with  the  grain  as  close  as  possible.  The  wood 
should  be  dry,  as  all  green  woods  are  inclined  to  crack 
and  open  when  the  pores  are  exposed  by  carving. 

Fig.  195  gives  the  second  stage,  showing  how  the 
general  outline  is  cut  out  by  means  of  a  band  saw. 
In  our  examples  the  under  part  of  bracket  is  made 
of  a  narrower  piece  of  wood  than  that  of  the  upper 
part.  This  helps  to  break  up  what  would  otherwise 
be  too  flat  a  surface  as  seen  from  the  side.  The  under 
piece  should  be  let  into  the  upper  part,  as  in  Fig.  193, 
and  enough  wood  should  be  left  on  the  upper  hori- 
zontal part  to  let  into  the  wall  to  form  a  support  for 
lixing.  The  lower  part  could  be  fastened  to  wall  by 
bolts,  dowels  or  any  other  method,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  material  to  which  the  bracket  is  to  be 
fixed. 

Fig.  192  gives  an  idea  of  the  outline  to  be  drawn 
upon  the  side  surfaces  before  sinking  the  ground  to 
form  the  strapwork.  Parts  of  this  strapwork  are  sunk 
deeply  into  the  wood  so  as  to  appear  to  join  with  and 
to  flow  into  the  lower  number.  See  the  lower  part  of 
upper  end  marked  A  in  Figs.  192  and  194,  which  give 
a  general  impression  of  the  side  view.  It  is  advisable 
to  sink  the  ground  down  to  about  §  in.  in  this  class  of 
work,  as  boldness  is  necessary  to  throw  up  carving 
in  outside  work.  In  Fig.  196  is  shown  the  method  of 
proceeding  with  the  leaf  forming  the  under  surface. 
After  this  leaf  is  drawn  upon  the  wood,  as  shown  in 
the  plan,  Fig.  197,  the  eyes  for  the  pipes  are  sunk  and 
the  containing  forms  of  the  lobes  cut  out  (see  B,  Fig. 
196).  The  volute-like  ends  of  the  console  are  best 
treated  so  as  to  appear  to  spread  out  as  they  turn 
over  (see  C  C,  Fig.  197). 

These  drawings  are  from  work  actually  carried  out, 
and  there  were  devices  and  monograms  cut  upon  the 
cartouches  in  the  corners.     Here  they  are  left  plain, 

173 


Woodcarving 

as  such  detail  depends  upon  the  requirements  in  each 
case.  If  desired,  the  strapwork  can  be  slightly  hollowed, 
should  a  little  more  wealth  of  detail  be  wanted.    It  is 


FTG.    192. PATTERN    MARKED 

ON    WOOD 


FIG.    193. SQUARED 

TIMBER    REQUIRED 


FIG.    194. — CARVED    CONSOLE 
SIDE    VIEW 


FIG.    195. TIMBER   AFTER 

CUT    WITH    BAND    SAW 


not  advisable  to  undercut  the  lobes  of  the  leaves  too 
much,  in  case  of  fracture  ;  only  just  enough  being 
done  to  throw7  up  the  pattern  and  give  the  necessary 
relief.    Fig.  198  gives  a  view  similar  to  Fig.  196,  but 


174 


Carved  Consoles  for  Door  Canopy 

showing  the  final  stages.  The  drawings  do  not,  of 
course,  convey  the  amount  of  feeling  that  can  be  put 
into  such  work  ;  this  can  only  be  seen  on  the  actual 
carving. 

Consoles  or  brackets  for  doors,  shop  fronts  and  many 
other  purposes  are  in  constant  demand,  and  this  line 
of  carving  is  a  profitable  one  for  young  joiners  and 
carpenters  to  take  up,  especially  if  they  study  suffiei- 


FIG.    196. 

FIG.    197. 

FIG.    198. 

FIRST   AND 

PLAN   OF 

FINAL 

COND    STAGES 

CONSOLE 

STAGES 

ently  to  be  able  to  design  or  adapt  so  that  their 
patterns  can  be  cut  in  almost  any  form  of  wood  sup- 
plied. Few  people  know  how  closely  certain  kinds  of 
chestnut  resemble  oak  in  appearance,  or  how  nice  it  is 
to  cut  in  bold  work  and  how  durable  when  well  chosen. 
In  certain  districts  its  cheapness  is  also  a  great  con- 
sideration. Oak  is  undoubtedly  the  best  wood  for  the 
purpose,    but    chestnut    is    an    excellent    substitute. 


175 


XXVII.— WOODCARVING   TOOLS 

THE  TOOLS  used  by  woodcarvers  are  very  num- 
erous, and  vary  considerably  in  size  and  shape. 
There  is  no  complete  set  or  outfit,  as  the  combin- 
ation of  size  and  curve  allows  a  variety  of  form 
which  is  almost  infinite.  For  a  professional  carver 
an  assortment  of  from  eighty  to  one  hundred 
tools  is  not  uncommon,  but  a  good  deal  of  work,  es- 
pecially in  some  styles,  can  be  accomplished  with  a 
tenth  part  of  that  number,  and  the  beginner — for 
whom  this  book  is  written — would  be  more  hindered 
than  helped  by  a  full  outfit.  The  following  list,  though 
not  including  all  the  varieties  obtainable,  will  give 
the  reader  a  fair  idea  of  the  names  and  forms  of  the 
tools  : — 

V  tools. — Fig.  199  shows  three  types  of  V  or  parting 
tools. 

Chisels. — The  carver's  chisel,  commonly  called  a 
firmer,  and  the  corner  firmer  or  skew  chisel  are  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  200.  These  and  most  other  forms  of 
carving  tools  are  made  in  widths  varying  from  1-1 6th 
in.  to  1J  in.  The  marks  at  the  left-hand  side  of  the 
illustrations  show  the  shape  of  the  cutting  edges  on 
an  enlarged  scale. 

Gouges. — Fig.  201  shows  three  shapes  of  straight 
gouges,  the  lower  one  of  the  three  being  termed  a 
'  nutting  '  tool,  and  in  the  smaller  sizes  (J  in.  or  under) 
a  '  veiner.' 

Bent  gouges. — At  Fig.  202  are  shown  '  curved  ' 
gouges,  and  all  the  shapes  obtainable  in  straight 
gouges  are  obtainable  in  the  curved  form,  as  also  in 
the  other  forms  illustrated.  Fig.  203  shows  '  bent '  or 
4  front  bent '  gouges,  while  Fig.  204  illustrates  the 
4  back  bent  '  variety. 

177  N 


178 


IVoodcarving  Tools 

Bent  chisels. — Fig.  205  shows  three  bent  chisels, 
commonly  known  as  4  grounding  tool  •  or  '  grounders.' 

A  glance  at  the  illustrations  will  show  that  the  tools 
have  a  cutting  edge  at  one  end  and  a  point  at  the 
other.  This  latter  is  called  the  tang — and  is  for  holding 
the  tool  in  the  handle,  into  which  it  is  inserted  as  far 
as  the  shoulder,  which  also  can  be  seen  in  the  illus- 
trations. Some  tools  for  light  work  are  made  without 
shoulders. 

The  handles  ,arp  from  3J  ins.  to  5  ins.  in  length 
and  from  f  in.  to  lj  in.  in  diameter,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  tool,  and  are  cylindrical,  hexagonal,  or 
octagonal  in  section,  sometimes  tapering  at  one  or 
both  ends.  The  best  form  is  the  hexagonal  or  octagonal, 
as  they  are  not  so  liable  to  roll  all  over  the  place  as 
the  round  ones,  winch  have  an  uncomfortable  knack 
of  falling  off  the  bench  and  thereby  damaging  their 
edges.  The  handles  are  usually  fixed  by  driving  them 
on  to  the  tang  of  the  tool  after  first  boring  a  hole  in 
them,  but  some  carvers  prefer  to  set  them  in  gutta- 
percha. 

The  tools,  except  those  sold  in  sets,  are  usually 
supplied  (unless  otherwise  ordered)  without  handles 
and  not  sharpened,  but  can  always  be  obtained 
handled  and  sharpened  ready  for  use.  Some  good  sets, 
containing  from  six  to  twenty  or  thirty  tools,  can  be 
obtained,  but  it  is  better  to  buy  tools  singly  as  re- 
quired. The  shapes  vary  somewhat  with  different 
makes,  and  the  maker's  list  should  be  obtained  before 
purchasing. 

When  the  carver  is  sufficiently  advanced,  and  feels 
that  he  or  she  has  gained  the  necessary  degree  of  pro- 
ficiency, then  it  is  advisable  to  add  to  the  set  whatever 
tools  are  necessary  to  properly  execute  the  work  in 
hand  ;  and  when  intricate  designs  are  being  attempted, 
it  will  be  found  that  more  i  grounding  '  tools  are  nec- 
essary than  the  two  indicated  at  Fig.  24,  a  smaller 

179 


Woodcarving 


FIG.    199.— TYPES   OF  V   (OR   PARTING    TOOLS) 


FIG.   200.—  CHISELS,    OR   IIRMERS 


FIG.   201. — STRAIGHT   GOUGES 


FIG.   202. — CURVED    GOUGES 
180 


PVoodcarving  Tools 


3(B  1 


FIG.  203. — FRONT  BENT  GOUGES 


FIG.  204. BACK  BENT  GOUGES 


_D 


C^==anZZD 


FIG.    205.— BENT    CHISELS,    OR    GROUNDING   TOOLS 


D 


FIG.   206. — CARVING   TOOL    HANDLES 


FIG.    207. — SECTIONS    OF    OIL   SLIPS 
181 


IVoodcarving 

one,  l-16th  in.  No.  21,  and  one  size  larger,  \  in.  No.  21, 
being  the  most  useful. 

Materials  for  sharpening  tools  are  mentioned  in 
the  next  chapter. 

Other  tools. — In  addition,  a  mallet,  one  or  two 
punches,  and  a  pair  of  cramps  will  be  required.  The 
mallet  should  be  a  round  carver's  mallet,  the  advantage 
of  these  being  that  they  always  present  a  similar  face 
to  the  tool  handle.     Punches  can  be  obtained,  ready 


FIG.  208 

MALLET 


& 


FIG.  209 

PUNCHES 


made,  at  the  tool  dealers  ;  but  may  be  made  from 
large  wire  nails  or  other  suitable  material  with  a  three- 
cornered  file.  With  regard  to  the  cramps,  those  shown 
in  Fig.  4  are  recommended  because  they  are  flat  and 
do  not  interfere  with  the  free  work  of  the  hands  whilst 
carving.  We  would  also  impress  upon  workers  the 
necessity  of  a  case,  or  suitable  box,  to  keep  the  tools 
from  injury. 

A  substantial  bench  or  table  will  be  required  for 
working  at,  and  should  be  of  sufficient  height  to  enable 

182 


JVoodcarving  Tools 

the  carver  to  work  standing.  Fasten  the  work  down 
at  the  corner  of  the  bench,  when  practicable  ;  you  can 
then  get  round  the  work  much  better,  and  so  are  able 
to  execute  the  curves  in  the  designs  with  greater 
precision- 

There  are  various  ways  of  fixing  the  work  to  the 


fig.  210. — woodcarver's  bench  screw 


bench.  For  instance,  a  panel  can  be  held  by  three  or 
four  ordinary  iron  door  buttons  screwed  to  the  bench, 
or  pieces  of  wood  can  be  made  to  answer  the  same 
purpose.  The  best  method  is  to  have  a  stout  piece  of 
wood  on  which  to  mount  the  work,  either  by  glueing 
with  paper  in  between  or  by  screwing  and  fixing  the 
former  to  the  bench  with  the  bench  screw.    The  screw 

183 


Woodcarving 

is  passed  through  a  hole  in  the  bench  and  secured  with 
the  nut  underneath,  as  Fig.  210.  This  arrangement 
enables  the  work  to  be  turned  round  as  desired  to 
cope  with  the  variations  of  the  grain  and  its  value 
cannot  be  over-estimated.  Most  of  the  exercises  in 
the  present  volume  can,  however,  be  held  while  work- 
ing with  a  pair  of  ordinary  iron  cramps. 


PHOTOGKAPH    FPAME,    WITH 
IVY    LEAF    DESIGN 


184 


XXVIII.-SHARPENING  TOOLS 

THE  best  work — clean  and  sharp  in  outline,  and 
crisp  in  surface  treatment — can  only  be  produced 
by  the  proper  combination  of  ability  with  sharp 
tools.  Tools  as  they  come  from  the  makers  are, 
as  a  rule,  not  ground,  so  the  edges  must  first  be 
ground  straight  across,  when  they  will  be  found 
to  be  very  thick  ;  they  must  then  be  ground  down 
now  to  a  fine  edge,  quite  evenly,  so  that  neither  the 
corners  nor  the  centre  dip.  Each  tool,  it  will  be  noticed, 
has  a  face  side — that  is,  the  one  which  is  polished, 
the  back  generally  being  left  dull ;  and,  in  grinding, 
both  sides  where  practicable  may  be  laid  on  the  grind- 
stone. More  steel  is  ground  off  the  back  than  the  face 
of  the  tool. 

Grinding. — Grind  a  portion  of  the  steel  off  each 
side  of  the  tool  until  the  edge  is  barely  visible ; 
let  this  edge  be  very  thin  indeed,  but  do  not  let 
the  two  ground  surfaces  quite  meet.  The  length  of 
the  ground  surface  should  be  about  f  in.  on  the 
back  and  considerably  less  on  the  face,  it  often  being 
sufficient  to  rub  the  face  side  on  the  oilstone.  If 
too  long  a  bevel  be  made,  the  strength  of  the  tool  is 
reduced. 

In  grinding  straight  tools  no  great  difficulty  is 
found,  but  curved  tools  require  more  careful  treat- 
ment. The  best  way  is  to  gently  rock  them  from  side 
to  side  until  the  edge  reaches  the  degree  of  thinness 
required.  Always  turn  the  grindstone  away  from  the 
tool — not  towards  it — and  use  plenty  of  water.  "  After 
grinding,  the  flat  tools  should  be  held  upon  the  stone 
at  an  angle  just  a  little  greater  than  that  of  the  ground 
surface  and  rubbed  backwards  and  forwards  until 
the  two  surfaces  meet  each  other,  taking  especial  care 

185 


IVoodcarving 

to  preserve  the  same  angle  the  whole  of  the  way.   This 
will  bring  the  tool  to  a  cutting  edge. 

When  putting  in  bevels  on  the  grindstone  the  stone 
should  be  turned  away  from  the  tool,  and  the  last  or 
cutting  bevel  should  be  worked  on  the  oil  stone  only, 
the  feather  edge  (or  burr)  being  taken  off  by  means 
of  the  leather  strop  dressed  with  a  little  oil  and  fine 
emery  powder  mixed  together. 

Sharpening. — The  gouges,  of  course,  can  have  their 
outside  or  back  surface  worked  on  the  stone.  There 
are  two  methods  of  doing  this  ;  one  is  to  hold  the  tool 
at  right  angles  to  the  stone,  and  gently  rock  it  from 
corner  to  corner  the  full  length  of  the  stone  ;  the 
second  is  to  hold  it  like  the  flat  tools  and  rock  it 
rapidly  from  corner  to  corner,  as  it  is  at  the  same  time 
pushed  backwards  and  forwards.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  wear  the  edge  evenly,  so  that  it  is  still  straight 
across  when  this  process  has  been  gone  through.  For 
the  inside  of  the  gouge,  take  the  slip  whose  curved 
edge  most  nearly  fits  its  curve,  and,  holding  it  at  an 
angle,  rub  it  backwards  and  forwards,  taking  care 
to  rub  equally  on  the  corners  as  on  the  centre.  With 
the  V-tool  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  point  sharp 
and  clean.  A  few  detail  hints  on  the  sharpening  of 
gouges  and  V-tools  may  be  of  service. 

Sharpening  gouges. — Gouges  require  more  prac- 
tice to  sharpen  properly  than  in  the  case  of  chisels. 
The  best  way  is  to  hold  them  at  right  angles  to  the 
oil  stone,  and  to  put  them  through  a  double  motion  ; 
thus,  as  the  tool  is  worked  from  right  to  left  and  back 
again  along  the  surface  of  the  stone,  the  wrists  should 
be  moved,  rocking  the  *  gouges  according  to  their 
curves  so  that  all  the  surface  of  the  curve  gets  an 
equal  pressure  and  treatment.  The  bevels  of  gouges 
should  not  be  too  great,  as  they  are  then  rendered 
very  thin  and  brittle.  Inside  edges  are  treated  with 
the  washita  slip,  one  being  chosen  that  is  as  near  to 

1M 


187 


IVoodcarving 

the  curve  as  possible,  but  not  greater.  With  many 
mechanics  who  have  taken  up  wood  carving,  there  is 
a  bad  habit  of  so  sharpening  their  gouges  that  the 
centre  projects  in  a  point.  This  habit  causes  the  cuts 
to  be  uneven.  If  it  is  thought  necessary  to  round  the 
corners  off  at  all,  treat  slightly.  Of  course  rectangular 
corners  are  liable  to  be  broken,  but  to  round  them 
too  much  is  to  destroy  the  known  value  of  the  curve. 
The  veiners  are  sharpened  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  gouges,  but,  being  so  small,  special  slips  to  fit 
should  be  used  for  the  inside. 

Sharpening  V  tools. — The  parting,  or  V  tools, 
are  the  most  difficult  to  sharpen  in  a  satisfactory 
manner.  They  are,  however,  so  useful  in  setting  in 
most  work,  that  their  good  cutting  condition  is  of 
first  importance.  They  should  be  laid  over  on  their 
side  and  each  surface  treated  like  a  chisel.  They  are, 
in  fact,  two  chisel  planes  placed  so  as  to  form  a  cut- 
ting angle.  The  two  sides  should  not  give  much 
trouble,  but  they  must  be  ground  equally  and  even, 
or  else  an  undesirable  lip  or  hollow  will  appear.  The 
angle  at  the  bottom  is  the  most  important  and  yet 
the  hardest  to  get  right. 

Some  parting  tools  are  made  rather  thick  at  the 
point,  and  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  rub  them 
up  a  little  from  the  bottom.  A  good  tool  would  not 
need  any  of  this  bottom  treatment,  but  it  would  have 
to  be  carefully  sharpened  with  an  Arkansas  slip  that 
fits  the  angle  as  near  as  possible. 

Stropping.  —  Every  tool  should  be  finished  on 
the  leather,  which  can  be  either  a  proper  strop  or  a 
piece  of  old  leather. 

After  working  on  the  oilstone  we  shall  often  find 
that  along  the  edge  of  each  tool  there  is  what  is  called 
the  feather  edge  :  and  the  use  of  the  strop  is  here 
called  in  to  take  this  off.  Draw  the  tool  rapidly  along 
the  strop  several  times  on  one  side,  then  on  the  other. 

188 


189 


IVoodcarving 

Then  the  edge  will  be  found  to  have  disappeared  and 
the  tool  is  quite  ready  for  use.  If  properly  sharpened 
the  tool  will  make  in  the  softest  wood  a  cut  which 
leaves  a  smooth,  clean  surface,  quite  free  from  rough- 
ness and  scratches. 

Materials  for  sharpening. — The  materials  re- 
quisite for  grinding  and  sharpening  carving  tools 
are  a  grindstone  (or  access  to  one)  which  should  be 
of  medium  texture  ;  one  quick-cutting  (or  what  is 
known  as  a  fast  carborundum  or  Washita)  oil  stone  ; 
one  fine  close  grained  oil  stone  for  finishing  ;  two  or 
three  Washita  slips  to  fit  the  gouges  ;  and  a  set  of 
Arkansas  slips  for  veiners  and  parting  tools.  (Fig. 
207.)  If  the  above  is  found  to  be  too  costly,  one  med- 
ium carborundum  oil  stone,  one  Washita  slip  for 
gouges,  with  one  large  curved  surface  and  one  small, 
and  an  Arkansas  triangular  slip  for  the  parting  tools 
would  be  sufficient  for  most  purposes. 

A  strop  is  also  required.  This  is  a  leather  strap 
into  which  has  been  well  rubbed  a  mixture  of  tallow 
and  emery  powder.  Its  object  is  to  take  off  the  fine 
feather  edge  often  left  on  tools  after  leaving  the  slip. 


190 


XXIX.— DESIGNS 

TO  BECOME  an  expert  woodcarver  is  essentially 
a  question  of  time  and  study.  The  worker  must 
have  good  models  of  a  progressive  character  from 
which  to  study,  or  no  progress  can  be  made.  To 
go  on  repeating  the  same  elementary  forms  in 
infinite  variety  will  give  facility  in  handling  the 
tools  ;  but,  just  as  a  child  who  never  heard  speech 
would  remain  dumb,  so  the  carver  who  does  not  study 
the  works  of  others  will  never  be  able  to  express  freely 
his  own  ideas,  and  according  to  the  quality  of  his 
impressions  his  expression  will  be  good  or  otherwise. 
The  ability  to  draw  from  nature  or  models  is  un- 
doubtedly of  great  assistance  to  the  carver,  as  carving 
is  but  a  development  of  drawing — drawing  in  many 
planes  instead  of  in  one  as  on  paper ;  but  many  who 
cannot  make  a  passable  drawing  on  paper  can  yet 
execute  relief  work  when  the  design  is  mechanically 
set  out. 

Drawing. — The  woodcarver  is  strongly  urged  to 
practise  drawing  and  to  make  preliminary  drawings 
before  attempting  any  piece  of  carving,  as  this  enables 
a  clear  idea  of  the  design  to  be  obtained  and  conduces 
to  a  better  execution.  In  the  case  of  a  poor  draughts- 
man it  is  better,  after  making  one's  own  studies,  to 
start  the  actual  work  with  a  good  outline  drawn  by 
another  hand.  The  design  can,  of  course,  be  pasted 
on  to  the  wood,  as  is  frequently  done  by  fretworkers  ; 
but  this  proceeding  is  by  no  means  to  be  recommended 
to  carvers,  as  the  paper  obscures  the  grain  of  the  wood, 
rendering  it  a  matter  of  experiment  as  to  which  way 
a  particular  cut  should  be  made,  whereas  with  the 
pattern  clearly  traced  the  proper  direction  can  be 
be  seen  at  a  glance. 

191 


Woodcarving 

Those  who  are  unable  to  draw  freehand,  and  are 
aware  of  the  deficiency,  may  to  some  extent  over- 
come the  difficulty  by  learning  to  draw  mechanically 
— measure  each  point  on  a  design  with  the  compasses 
and  copy  it  bit  by  bit,  never  trusting  to  the  eye,  but 
measuring  from  margin  to  leaf  and  leaf  to  stalk 
throughout  all  the  pattern.  It  may  be  a  long  process, 
but  it  will  result  in  accuracy,  and  finally,  if  the  method 
be  persevered  in,  the  student  will  suddenly  find  that 
he  has  acquired  a  '  free  '  hand,  and  no  small  capacity 
for  designing.  Orthodox  art  teachers  may  not  agree 
with  the  foregoing  instructions,  but  they  are  culled 
from  the  experience  of  one  who  trained  many  expert 
carvers  and  who  insisted  that  an  accurate  knowledge 
of  form  was  the  basis  of  all  good  design. 

Selecting  designs. — All  woodcarvers  should  adopt 
the  practice  of  keeping  cuttings  of  illustrations  of 
woodcarving  taken  from  magazines  and  the  daily 
papers,  both  from  the  advertisement  columns  and 
from  the  special  articles  which  appear  from  time  to 
time  in  such  journals.  It  is  surprising  what  a  valuable 
collection  can  be  got  together  in  this  way.  The  cuttings 
should  be  selected  from  good  examples,  and  carefully 
labelled  as  to  their  style  and  period.  From  this  rich 
storehouse  of  ideas  and  designs  it  is  possible  to  make 
a  judicious  selection  as  occasion  may  arise. 

Carving,  as  a  general  rule,  should  have  no  inde- 
pendent existence,  but  should  from  the  first  be  taken 
in  hand  with  a  definite  idea  as  to  its  ultimate  use  and 
position.  To  carve  a  lot  of  separate  panels,  etc.,  for 
the  sake  of  carving  only,  is  a  lesson  only  half  learned. 
A  practical  knowledge  of  construction  should  come 
first  wherever  possible.  We  must  learn  to  realise  that 
constructional  woodwork  and  cabinet  making  go  hand 
in  hand  with  carving,  and  that  this  is  the  only  sensible 
way  of  progression. 

Care  taken  at  an  early  stage  to  select  a  really  prac- 


VINE    LEAF    DESIGN 


103 


IVoodcarving 

tical  and  good  design  suitable  to  the  article  in  hand 
would  save  much  disappointment  later.  Unfortun- 
ately, these  principles  are  often  disregarded,  and  we 
see  a  design  which,  though  suitable  and  correct  for 
something  else,  turns  out  a  failure,  just  because  suffi- 
cient thought  has  not  been  given  to  its  selection  in 
the  first  place.  It  is  unwise  to  take  a  design  which 
has  merely  appealed  to  our  fancy,  and  to  use  this 
indiscriminately  on  any  article  and  in  any  position. 
Our  cuttings  or  sketches  should  help  us  here,  for  seeing 
what  has  been  done  in  successful  work  we  note  it  down, 
endeavouring  to  find  the  reason  for  success,  and  thus 
gaining  an  insight  into  the  proper  application  of  orna- 
mental form  to  woodcarving. 

As  carving  is  applied  to  furniture,  etc.,  to  enrich 
the  same,  it  stands  to  reason  that  the  designs  should 
well  fill  the  space  or  spaces  chosen  for  carving.  It  is 
better  to  reduce  the  area  to  be  carved  than  to  spread 
one's  work  all  over  the  surface.  The  thin  spread-out 
carved  work,  with  a  great  expanse  of  plain  or  stamped 
background,  has  brought  a  good  deal  of  trade  work 
into  ill  repute  with  the  more  educated  section  of  the 
public.  Therefore,  in  selecting  designs  from  illustra- 
tions or  cuttings,  choose  something  that  is  not  only 
otherwise  suitable,  but  which  fills  the  spaces  to  be 
carved,  and  leaves  little  background  showing.  All 
the  necessary  plain  space  can  be  obtained  in  the  stiles, 
rails,  and  borders  round  the  works. 

Transferring  Designs. — Before  actually  commencing 
to  carve,  it  is  necessary  that  some  guiding  lines  should 
be  placed  on  the  wood.  These  lines  can  either  be  drawn 
direct  or,  transferred  from  a  design  previously  drawn 
on  paper,  which  is  usually  the  better  course,  and  there 
are  several  ways  of  doing  this. 

The  simplest,  cleanest,  and  most  expeditious  method 
of  transferring  designs  from  paper  to  wood  is  by  means 
of  carbon  paper,  which  can  be  purchased  from  any 

104 


DESIGN    FOR    HAND    MIRROK 


195 


IVoodcarving 

stationer.  This,  as  most  know,  is  simply  a  sheet  of 
paper  coated  with  a  preparation  of  grease  and  colour, 
so  that  when  any  hard  substance  is  drawn  across  it  a 
mark  is  left  on  whatever  happens  to  be  underneath. 
These  tracing  papers  may  be  had  in  black,  blue  or  red. 
Black  is  usually  preferred — chiefly  on  account  of  its 
leaving  a  stronger  mark  on  the  wood. 

A  new  sheet  of  carbon  paper  is  obviously  blacker 
and  more  greasy  than  one  which  has  been  in  use  for 
some  time.  It  consequently  gives  a  stronger  impression. 
For  this  reason  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  new  sheet  for 
dark  woods,  such  as  American  walnut,  and  a  worn 
sheet  for  white  or  delicately-coloured  woods.  On  a 
dark  wood  a  worn  sheet  will  leave  an  indistinct  line 
which  it  is  difficult  to  follow ;  whilst  if  a  new  sheet 
is  used  for,  say,  sycamore,  it  may  soil  the  surface  to 
a  degree  that  will  afterwards  necessitate  laborious 
cleaning. 

Fixing  the  paper. — When  the  design  is  arranged 
on  the  wood  it  must  be  seen  that  the  carbon  paper  is 
below  every  part  of  the  diagram  that  has  to  be  traced. 
It  is  idle  to  suppose  that  the  worker  can  hold  the  design 
on  the  wood  while  he  traces  the  outline  ;  he  must 
fasten  it  down  at  the  corners  with  pins,  tacks,  or — 
better  still — regular  drawing-pins.  If  the  design  should 
happen  to  slip  when  the  work  is  half  done  it  will 
puzzle  the  operator  to  know  how  to  get  it  exactly  in 
its  right  place  again.  During  the  preliminary  prepara- 
tions care  must  be  taken  not  to  rub  the  hand  roughly 
over  the  design,  as  this  will  leave  a  mark  on  the  wood  ; 
such  care  is  particularly  necessary  when  the  carbon 
paper  is  new  and  greasy. 

What  to  trace  with. — It  is  usually  said  that 
tracing  may  be  done  with  an  agate  stylo,  a  sharp- 
pointed  stick,  or  a  pencil.  Tastes  always  differ,  but 
the  writer  prefers  a  pencil.  An  agate  stylo  has  rarely 
a  sharp  enough  point.     If  a  '  stick  '  is  used,  a  hard- 

196 


Designs 


r> 


wood  penholder  sharpened  to  a  fine  point  is  the  best 
weapon  ;  any  soft  wood  is  useless.  The  advantage  of 
a  pencil  is  that  we  all  know  how  to  hold  and  use  it. 
The  lead  should  be  hard  (say  an  H  or  HH)  and  must 
be  kept  with  a  sharp  point.  If  the  worker  keeps  a 
small  bit  of  fine  glasspaper  beside  him  and  periodically 
rubs  the  lead  point  on  it  he  will  be  able  to  reproduce  a 
consistently  fine  outline  on  the  wood. 

In  tracing  the  design  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  worker  who  has  had  no  experience  in  drawing 
is  at  a  disadvantage.  Still,  as  it  is  only  a  matter  of 
going  over  an  existing  line  with  a  steady  hand,  a 
little  practice  should  give  him  the  required  skill. 

When  the  ornamental  part  of  the  work  is  taken  in 
hand  it  will  be  found  that  the  glossy  mark  left  by  the 
pencil  on  the  diagram  indicates  clearly  how  much  of 
the  drawing  has  been  done,  and  obviates  the  necessity 
for  continually  raising  the  paper  to  see  how  the  work 
is  progressing.  The  skilled  draughtsman  has  many 
opportunities  for  correcting  any  little  errors  in  printing 
which  may  have  crept  into  the  design.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  unskilled  encounters  endless  pitfalls  into 
which  he  will  stumble  if  he  attempts  to  hurry  over 
his  work. 

A  firm  pressure  of  the  pencil  is  necessary  to  give  a 
good  outline,  but  any  actual  indenting  of  the  wood 
should  be  avoided.  When  the  work  is  supposed  to  be 
completed,  the  paper  should  be  gently  raised  to  see 
that  no  part  has  been  omitted.  In  doing  this  it  is 
wise  to  keep  the  two  top  pins  in,  so  that  if  any 
lines  have  been  left  out  the  design  may  not  be 
displaced. 

Duplicating. — An  incidental  advantage  of  tracing 
in  this  way  is  that,  as  the  carbon  paper  is  coated  on 
both  sides,  an  impression  is  left  on  the  back  of  the  de- 
sign as  well  as  on  the  wood.  In  this  way,  if  a  reversed 
diagram  is  ever  wanted,  the  design  may  be  laid  face 

197 


Designs 

downwards  on  the  wood  and  the  tracing  done  from 
the  outline  on  the  back. 

Carbon  paper  is  also  useful  for  completing  a  design 
or  shape  when  only  one  half  is  given.  A  sheet  of 
white  paper  is  folded  in  two,  and  the  carbon  paper 
placed  inside,  close  up  to  the  fold.  The  design  is  then 
arranged  above,  the  centre  line  exactly  corresponding 
with  the  fold.  When  the  outline  is  traced,  and  the 
white  paper  is  folded  out,  an  impression  of  the  whole 
pattern  will  be  found. 

In  the  absence  of  carbon  paper  the  back  of  the 
design  may  be  rubbed  over  with  chalk  or  charcoal, 
according  to  the  colour  of  the  wood  to  be  used,  or  a 
lump  of  burnt  sienna  or  Venetian  red  or  any  dry 
substance  which  will  leave  a  deposit  on  the  paper 
can  be  used.  The  pattern  is  pinned  to  the  wood  and 
marked  over  as  before  described,  but  as  the  dry  pig- 
ments will  rub  off  the  wood  as  easily  as  from  the  paper, 
the  lines  must  be  gone  over  again  on  the  wood  with  a 
pencil.  This  second  marking  is  not  required  in  the 
case  of  good  carbon  paper,  as  the  greasy  matter  on 
the  latter  adheres  to  the  wood. 


199 


DESIGN    FOR    TIMEPIECE 


200 


XXX.— WOODS   FOR  CARVING 

THE  wood  chosen  for  carving  should  always 
where  possible,  be  of  even  and  uniform  grain, 
free  from  knots  and  strong  markings.  For  begin- 
ners a  soft  wood  is  advisable,  as  not  only  does  it 
require  less  physical  force  from  hands  unaccus- 
tomed to  the  work,  but  the  exercises  can  be  got 
through  more  speedily.  The  freedom  with  which 
soft  wood  can  be  worked  also  assists  the  student  to 
obtain  a  good  style  of  working,  and  its  liability  to 
damage  demands  a  care  and  watchfulness  throughout, 
both  of  the  condition  of  the  tools  and  the  method  of 
working,  which  are  of  inestimable  value. 

The  best  yellow  pine  is  a  splendid  wood  in  this 
respect  and  is  comparatively  cheap.  Satin  walnut  is, 
however,  a  favourite  wood  for  early  exercises,  as  it 
is  somewhat  firmer  than  pine  and  has  a  better  appear- 
ance when  finished.  It  is  more  liable  to  twist  and  warp 
than  most  other  woods,  and  is  somewhat  unsatis- 
factory for  work  that  is  to  be  made  up.  Selected 
straight  grained  mahogany  is  harder  still,  but  is  ex- 
cellent for  the  purpose,  especially  for  those  who  have 
had  some  previous  experience  in  working  in  wood. 
Oak  and  walnut  and  other  hard  woods  are  better  left 
alone  until  the  student  has  made  some  progress. 

The  exercises  treated  in  this  book  have  been 
arranged  so  that  the  tools  will  be  brought  into  use 
gradually ;  and  the  difficulties  which  invariably 
occur  to  the  beginner  have  been  dealt  with  one  by  one, 
so  that  they  may  be  more  easily  mastered. 

Polishing  Carved  Work. — When  the  worker  has 
finished  his  carving  the  question  of  polishing  it  arises. 
There  are  quite  a  number  of  methods  within  the  ability 
of  anyone  who  is  not  an  expert  polisher. 

201 


IVoodcarving 

If  American  walnut  has  been  used,  it  looks  well 
if  the  plain  parts,  such  as  framing,  mouldings,  and 
margins,  are  french  polished,  and  the  carved  portions 
left  quite  dull  ;  either  covered  with  just  one  coat  of 
polish,  put  on  w;th  the  brush,  or  left  the  natural 
colour  of  the  wood,  it  being  understood  that  carving 
should  not  as  a  rule  be  highly  polished. 

Oiling  the  whole  work  with  raw  linseed  oil  makes 
a  very  good  finish,  and,  if  followed  with  vigorous 
rubbing  at  regular  intervals,  a  good  dull  polished 
surface  can  be  obtained  that  is  pleasing,  natural,  in 
good  taste,  and  that  shows  the  grain  of  the  wood  to 
great  advantage.  The  process  simply  consists  in 
covering  the  work,  either  with  a  rag,  or  a  camel-hair 
brush,  with  raw  linseed  oil,  letting  it  stand  for  two  or 
three  hours,  and  then  wiping  oft  with  a  clean  rag. 
This  process  repeated,  say,  half-a-dozen  times,  and 
followed  by  the  vigorous  rubbing  referred  to,  will 
produce  an  exceedingly  good  surface.  If  it  be  required 
of  the  oil  that  it  shall  dry  quickly,  it  is  an  advantage 
to  put  one  part  turps  to  two  or  three  parts  oil. 

Another  way  to  finish  walnut  is  to  oil,  dry,  and  rub. 
and  then  give  one  coat  of  brush  polish ;  glasspaper 
with  fine  paper ;  then  rub  with  the  familiar  beeswax 
and  turpentine  or  ronuk. 

Finishing  Oak. — The  same  plan  can  be  adopted  if 
the  wood  be  oak,  especially  if  it  be  required  to  have 
it  light  in  colour.  If  it  be  required  to  have  it 
very  light,  it  may  be  waxed  without  previously 
oiling  it,  which  latter  slightly  darkens  it.  But  many 
people  like  the  oak  to  be  darkened  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent.  The  best  way  to  accomplish  this  is  to  fumigate 
it  by  means  of  liquid  ammonia.  Different  kinds  of 
oak  take  the  fumes  in  a  different  manner.  Red  oak, 
for  instance,  will  scarcely  take  the  fumes  at  all.  Wains- 
cot oak  from  the  Baltic  ports,  or  from  Odessa,  will 
take  the  fuming  the  most  evenly. 

202 


IVoods  for  Carving 

After  the  desired  shade  is  obtained,  the  work  may 
be  oiled  with  raw  linseed  oil  and  then  waxed,  or  it 
may  be  waxed  without  oiling.  The  latter  process 
slightly  darkens  the  wood,  so  this  should  be  borne  in 
mind  in  deciding  whether  the  colour  produced  by  the 
ammonia  fumes  is  quite  the  right  shade  required. 

Oak  may  also  be  stained  to  any  shade  required. 
Stephens'  stains  are  suitable  for  this  purpose,  only 
requiring  diluting  with  water  if  too  strong.  After  the 
stain  is  applied,  it  should  be  allowed  to  dry.  Then  the 
work  may  be  oiled  and  waxed  as  before. 

Other  Woods. — Satin  walnut,  if  waxed  only,  retains 
its  natural  colour.  It  may  also  be  oiled  and  then 
waxed,  giving  it  a  yellowish  brown  tint,  slightly 
darker  than  its  natural  colour.  It  may  be  also  coated 
with  white  polish  ;  the  application  of  two  coats  is 
sufficient  to  keep  it  clean,  and  at  the  same  time  gives 
only  a  dull  finish.  It  may  also  be  french  polished, 
keeping  well  in  mind  advice  already  tendered  that  the 
carved  work  itself  should  not  be  bright.  Satin  walnut 
can  also  be  stained  to  imitate  oak  or  American  walnut, 
and  then  oiled  and  waxed,  or  french  polished. 

These  remarks  on  the  finishing  of  satin  walnut  can 
also  be  applied  to  kauri  pine  and  canary  wood.  White 
woods,  such  as  sycamore,  chestnut,  and  holly,  may  be 
stained  according  to  the  taste  of  the  student — green, 
black,  brown,  etc.,  then  given  two  coats  of  polish. 

An  excellent  polish  for  carved  work  is  made  by 
first  dissolving  shredded  beeswax  in  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine, then  mixing  the  emulsion  so  made  with  equal 
quantities  of  boiled  oil  and  turpentine. 

In  the  course  now  brought  to  a  close,  it  has  been 
intended  to  take  the  beginner  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  art  of  wood-carving  to  a  point  when  he 
or  she  will  be  able  to  grapple  with  the  greater  diffi- 
culties of  more  advanced  work  unaided,  with  more  or 
less  success.      By  always  taking  advantage  of  oppor- 

900 


JVooclcarving 

tunities,  of  inspecting,  and,  if  possible,  of  taking 
sketches  and  particulars  of  good  work,  the  worker 
should  be  able,  to  some  extent,  to  undertake  the 
execution  of  fairly  difficult  pieces  of  carving.  What 
is  most  required  is  practice — constant  conscientious 
practice,  having  regard  not  to  the  quantity  of  work 
done,  but  rather  to  the  quality. 


™CS1GN   FOB    THERMOMETER 


204 


$^i     « 


•     H 


205 


CARVED    TABLE— SIDE    VIEW 


2l>0 


207 


*-ML-j 


31Q 


INDEX 


Acanthus  leaf,  the,  27 
Adam  sbvle,  catenaries  of,  165, 

167 
Ammonia  fuming,  203 
Amorino  brackets,  120,  122 
Angel  heads  on  brackets,  120 
Architectural   purposes,    carv- 
ing for,  171 
Arkansas  oil  slip,  188,  190 
Arms,  heraldic,  55 


Back  bent  gouges  {see  Gouges) 
Beeswax  and  turpentine,  202 
Bellows,     designs     for     chip- 
carved,  189 
Bench  screw,  use  of  the,  27, 

127,  129,  183 
Bench,  the  work,  182 
Bent  chisels  (see  Chisels) 
Bent  gouges  (see  Gouges) 
Birch,  170 
Bird  and  foliage  panel,  carving 

a,  101 
Birds,  treatment  of,  101 
Bookcase,  Dutch,  with  carved 

pilasters,  209 
Book  rack  end,  design  for,  8 
Bookshelves,  design  for,  135 
Border   adaptation   cf  Gothic 

trefoil,  21 
Borders,  Gothic,  10 
Brace  and  bit  for  pierced  work, 

83 
Bracket,  design  for,  48 
Brackets  (or  consoles)  for  door 

canopy,  171 
Brackets  with  amorino  heads, 

120,  122 


Cabinet  door,  carving  a,  70 
Cabriole  legs,  carving,  8S 
Canary  wood,  203 
Canopy,  consoles  for  door,  171 
Carbon  paper,  10;  how  to  use,  194 
Cartouche  as  central  ornament 

on  sofa  back,  168 
Cartouche  ornament,  46 
Carving  tools  (see  Tools) 
Catenaries  and  festoons,  165 
Chest,     carving     Elizabethan 

oak,  63 
Chestnut,  173,  175,  203 
Child's  head,  formation  of,  120 
Chip-carved    bellows,    designs 

for,  189 
Chip-carved  clock,  design  for 

153 
Chip-carved  table  top,  205 
Chisel,   using  the,   for  setting 

in  outline,  3 
Chisels,  bent  (grounding  tools), 

for    background    work,    24, 

179,  181 
Chisels,  types  of,  177,  180,  181 
Claws,  carving,  92 
Clay,  blocking  out  child's  head 

in,  121 
Clay   model,    making   a,    113, 

121,  152 
Clay  modelling,  practice  in,  152 
Clock,  design  for,  200 
Clock,  design  for  chip-carved 

153 
Cock,  conventional  Gallic,  95 
Composition    of   line,    import- 
ance of,  136 
Consoles  for  door  canopy,  171 
Couch,Early  Victorian,  158, 160 
Cramp,  the  most  useful  type  of 

woodcarver's,  2,  5,  180,  182 


211 


Index 


Cramp  used  for  holding  work, 
10,  182 

Crewe  Hall,  griffins  on  stair- 
case of,  180 

Cusping  on  Gothic  tracery,  84 


Designs,  adaptation  of,  40 
Designs,  duplicating,  199 
Designs,  hints  on,  191 
Designs,  illustrations  of  : — 
Bellows,  chip-carved,  189 
Bookcase,  Dutch,  209 
Book  rack  end,  with  maple 

leaf,  8 
Bookshelves,  135 
Bracket,  48 
Cabinet  door,  77 
Chest,  Elizabethan,  63 
Chip-carved  clock,  153 
Clock,  200 

Clock,  chip-carved,  153 
Cupboard,  Gothic,  83 
Door  canopy  with  carved 

consoles,  172 
Festoons,  166,  168,  169 
Figure  panels,  137,  143 
Flower    pot    stand,    with 

acanthus  leaf,  32,  34 
Frame,  141 
Frame,  mirror,  178 
Frame,  mirror  or  picture, 

42 
Frame,  photograph,  with 

ivy  leaf,  184 
Frame,  picture,  187 
Frame  with  Gothic  orna- 
ment, 9 
Gothic  cupboard,  83 
Gothic  frame,  9 
Griffin,  heraldic,  62 
Hand  mirror,  195 
Heads,  female,  148 
Heraldic  griffin,  62 
Heraldic  shield,  56,  57 
Key  rack,  26 
Mirror  frame,  178 


Designs,  illustrations  of — contd. 
Mirror,  hand,  195 
Overdoor,  176 
Panel,  fish,  108 
Panel,  hare  and  squirrel, 

115 
Panel,       pheasant       and 

foliage,  102 
Panel,  vine  leaf,  193 
Panel,  with  section,  205 
Panels,  figure,  137,  143 
Pediment  ornament,  72 
Pediments,    examples    of, 

210 
Photograph    frame    with 

ivy  leaf,  184 
Picture  frames,  42,  187 
Pipe  rack,  198 
Sofa,  Early  Victorian,  158 
Table,  carved,  16 
Table,    circular,    with 
cabriole  legs,  93,  94 
Table,  Louis  XV,  94 
Table,  side  and  end  views, 

206,  207 
Table    top,    chip-carved, 

205 
Thermometer,  204 
Timepiece,  200 
Timepiece,    chip  -  carved, 

158 
Turned  and  carved  work, 

208 
Wall  pocket,  75 
War  Roll  of  Honour,  74 
Window  box  with   acan- 
thus leaf,  33 
Designs,  transferring,  194 
Door  canopy,  consoles  for,  171 
Door,  carving  a  cabinet,  76 
Drapery,  139,  140 
Drawing,  advantage  of,  191 
Drawings,  carving  heads  from 

shaded,  147 
Duplicating  designs,  199 
Dutch   bookca.se   with   carved 
pilasters,  209 


212 


Index 


Elizabethan  oak  chest,  carv- 
ing an,  63 

Elizabethan  period  referred  to, 
124,  126,  130 

Empire  (French)  period,  in- 
fluence of,  on  Early  Vic- 
torian furniture,  161 

Eye,  treatment  of,  93 


Feathers,  treatment  of,  103 

Feet,  detail  of,  139 

Festoons  and  swags,  165,  168, 

169 
Figure  carving,  136 
Firmers  (chisels),  types  of,  177, 

180 
Fish  panel,  carving  a,  107 
Fish,  treatment  of,  107 
Fleur-de-lis  feature,  100 
Flower  pot  stand  with  acan- 
thus leaf,  design  for,  32,  34 
Flower,  the  water-lily,  113 
Fluters  (quick  gouges),  177, 180 
Foliage,  treatment  of  oak,  106 
Frame  border,  carved,  10 
Frame,  design  for,  141 
Frame,  design  for  Gothic,  9 
Frame,  design  for  mirror,  178 
Frame,  design  for  picture,  187 
Frame,     mirror     or     picture, 

design  for,  42 
Frame,  photograph,  with  ivy 

leaf,  184 
Frames,  decoration  of,  49 
Freehand  drawing,  191 
Front  bent  gouges,  177,  180 
Fruit  as  ornament  for  festoons, 

167 
Fur,  indicating  animal,  117 
Furniture,  application  of  carv- 
ing to,  63,  70,  76,  82,  88 
Furniture,  Early  Victorian,  154 


Gallic  cock,  conventional,  95 
Gauge  for  testing  depths,  87 


Gibbon,  Grinling,  165 
Gothic  borders,  10 
Gothic  forms,  usefulness  of,  1 
Gothic  frame,  design  for,  9 
Gothic  leaf,  illustrations  of,  1, 

3,  4  ' ' 

Gothic  tracery,  carving,  82 
Gothic  trefoil,  the,  19 
Gouge,  grouping  main  features 

of  leaf  with,  5 
Gouge,     sinking     pattern     by 

means  of,  4 
Gouge,  small,  used  for  circular 

holes  or  hollows,  67 
Gouge  used  for  cuspings,  84 
Gouge  used  for  lobes  of  leaf, 

12,  14,  22 
Gouges,  curved,  177,  180 
Gouges,  deep,  used  for  hollows, 

36 
Gouges,  flat,  for  shallow  work, 

58 
Gouges,  front  and  back  bent, 

177,  180 
Gouges,  sharpening,  186 
Gouges,  types  of,  177,  180,  181 
Gouges  used  on  acanthus  leaf, 

27,  28,  30,  31 
Griffin,  carving  the,  130 
Griffin,  heraldic,  62 
Grinding  tools,  185 
Grindstone,  using  the,  185 
Grotesque   heads   and   masks, 

125 
Grotesques  :  the  griffin,  130 
Ground,  how  to  treat,  8 
Grounding  tools  (bent  chisels), 

24,  179,  181 

Hand  mirror,  design  for,  195 
Handles,  179,  181 
Hands,  detail  of,  139 
Hare  and  squirrel  panel,  114 
Head,     carving     conventional 

animal's,  on  cabriole  leg,  88, 

90 
Head,  child's,  120 


213 


Index 


Heads,   carving,  from   shaded 

drawings,  147 
Heads,  grotesque,  125 
Helmet  features,  heraldic,  58, 

60,  61 
Heraldic  carving,  55 
Heraldic  griffin,  62 
Heraldic  shield,  design  for,  56, 

57 
Holly,  203 


Ivy  leaf  design,  184 


Kauri  pine,  203 

Key  rack,  design  for,  26 


Leaf  design,  vine,  193 
Leaf,  illustration  of  maple,  7 
Leaf,    illustrations   of  Gothic, 

1,3,4 
Leaf,  ivy,  design,  184 
Leaf,  the  acanthus,  27 
Leaf,  useful  type  of,  for  carv- 
ing, 70,  72 
Leek  (Welsh)  form  in  design,  79 
Legs,  carving  cabriole,  89 
Lettering,  60 
Lime,  170 
Linseed  oil,  202 
Lion,  conventional,  95 
Lobes  of  leaf,  cutting,  5 
Lobes,  rounding  off  with 

gouges,  22 
Lobes,  setting  in  with  gouge,  12 
Lobes,  treatment  of  edges  of,  39 
Louis  XV  table,  design  for,  94 


Macaroni  tool,  24,  25 
Mahogany,  160,  201 
Mallet,  occasional  use  of ,  22, 1 82 
Mantling,  carving  heraldic,  58, 

59 
Maple  leaf,    Jlustration  of,  7 


Masks,  grotesque,  125 

Military  panel,  142 

Mirror,  design  for  hand,  195 

Mirror  frames,  decoration  of,  49 

Mirror  frames,  designs  for,  42 , 
178 

Modelling,  practice  in  clav, 
113,  121,  152 

Moresque  influence  on  Eliza- 
bethan work,  65 

Mouldings,  carved  ornament  in 
relation  to  contour  of,  16 


Natural  forms  in  carving  : — 
Fish  panel,  107 
Hare  and  squirrel  panel, 

114 
Pheasant      and       foliage 
panel,  101 
Newel  post,  griffin  on,  131 


Oak,  2,  26,  27,  63,   82,   129, 

171,  175,  201,  202 
Oak  chest,  carving  on  Eliza- 
bethan, 63 
Oak     foliage,     treatment    of, 

106 
Oak,  fuming,  202 
Oak,  polishing,  202 
Oiling  carved  work,  202 
Oilsiips,  sections  of,  181 
Oilstones   and   oilsiips,   using, 

186,  190 
Overdoor,  design  for,  176 
Overmantel,     part    of    Early 
Victorian,  156,  157 


Panel,  a  military,  142 
Panel,  carving  a  door,  76 
Panel,  carving  a  fish,  107 
Panel,  design  for,  with  section, 

205 
Panel,      hare      and       quirrel, 

114 


214 


Index 


Panel,   pheasant   and    foliage, 

carving  a,  101 
Panel,  vine  leaf,  193 
Panels,  figure,  136,  142 
Parting  (or  V)  tools,  tvpes  of, 

177,  180 
Peartree,  170 
Pediment  adaptation  of  Gothic 

trefoil,  21 
Pediment,  carving  a,  70 
Pediment,  leaf  treatment  on  a, 

41 
Pediments,  examples  of  carved, 

210 
Pheasant    and    foliage    panel, 

carving  a,  101 
Photograph    frame    with    ivy 

leaf,  184 
Picture    and    mirror    frames, 

decoration  of,  49 
Picture  frame  design,  187 
Pilasters,    carved,    on    Dutch 

bookcase,  209 
Pine,  2,  10,  26,  27,  201,  203 
Pipe  rack,  design  for,  198 
Polishing  carved  work,  201 
Punch,  when  to  avoid  use  of, 

8 
Punches,  182 

Red  Cross  feature,  100 
Renaissance  period,  references 

to,  47,  55,  124,  130,  165 
Ronuk,  202 
Rose  (English)  form  in  design, 

78,  80 
Roses  as  ornament  for  festoons, 

167 
Routers  for  background  work, 

66,  69 

Satin  walnut,  80,  201,  203 
Satin  walnut,  finishing,  203 
Scales,  fish,  109 
Screw,  use  of  bench,  127,  129, 
183 


Section,     importance     of,     in 

relation  to  carving,  113 
Section  of  figure,  138 
Section  of  head,  151 
Sections,      reading,      22,      30, 

31,    37,    91,    100,    113,   138, 

151 
Setting  in  with  chisel,  3 
Shamrock  form  in  design,  78 
Sharpening  tools,  185 
Shield,  design  for  heraldic,  56, 

57 
Shield  form  on  panel  design, 

80 
Skull,  study  of  the,  125 
Sofa,    carving   on    Early   Vic- 
torian, 158,  160 
Spandrel,    a   useful   space   for 

carving,  95 
Spandrel  treatment  of  British 

lion,  98,  99 
Spandrel  treatment  of  Gallic 

cock,  98,  99 
Squirrel  and  hare  pane,l,  114 
Strap  work,     Elizabethan,     see 

63,  68 
Stropping,  188 
Swags  and  festoons,  165,  168, 

169 
Sycamore,  170,  203 


Table,  carved,  side   and   end 

views,  206,  207 
Table,  design  for  carved,   18 
Table,  design  for  Louis  XV,  94 
Table  top,  chip-carved,  205 
Thermometer,  design  for,  204 
Thistle     (Scottish)     form     in 

design,  79,  81 
Timepiece,  design  for,  200 
Timepiece,    design    for    chip- 
carved,  153 
Tool  handles,  179,  181 
Tools,  carving  : — 

Chisels,  bent  (or  grounding 
tools),  179,  181 


215 


Index 


TVols,  carving  (continued) : — 
Chisels    (or   tinners),    177, 

180,  181 
Fluters     (sharp     gouges), 

177,  180 
Gouges,  curved  (front  and 

back  bent),  177, 180, 181    | 
Gouges,  straight,  177,  180 
Macaroni  tool,  24,  25 
V  tools  (or  parting  tools), 

177,  180 
Veiners,  177 
Tools,  carving  (see  also  under 
Chisels,  Gouges,  V  Tools,  and 
Veiners) 
Tools,  grinding,  185 
Tools,  how  to  hold,  12 
Tools,  set  of  seven,  12 
Tools,  set  of  six,  6 
Tools,  set  of  ten,  25 
Tools,  sharpening,  185 
Tracery,  carving  Gothic,  82 
Tracing  designs,  196 
Transferring  designs,  194 
Trefoil,  the  Gothic,  19 
Tudor  period  referred  to,  124, 

126 
Tudor  rose  form  in  design,  78, 

80 
Turned     and     carved     work, 

examples  of,  208 
Turpentine  (turps),  202 


V  Tool,  general  usefulness  of, 
14 

V  tool  used  for  cutting  chan- 
nels of  leaves,  70 

V  tool  used  for  outlining,  12,  20 

V  tool  used  for  setting  in,  89 

V  tool  used  for  veining  leaf,'  7 

V  tools,  sharpening,  188 


V  tools,  types  of,  177,  180 
Veiner,  setting  out  vith,  35 
Veiner  used  for  circular  holes 

or  hollows,  67 
Veiner,  using  the,  16 
Veiners,  sharpening,  188 
Victorian  furniture,  carving  on 

Early,  154 
Vine  leaf  design,  193 


Wall  pocket,  design  for,  75 
Walnut,  2,  26,  27,  80, 129, 160, 

201,  202 
Walnut,  polishing,,  202 
Washita  slip,  190 
Water-lily  flowery  113 
Waxing,  202 
Window    box    with    acanthus 

leaf,  design  for,  33 
Wings,    angel    and     amorino, 

121 
Wings  of  griffin,  132 
Woods  for  carving  : — 

Birch,  170 

Canary,  203 

Chestnut,  173,  175,  203 

Holly,  203 

Kauri  pine,  203 

Lime,  170 

Mahogany,  160,  201 

Oak,  2,  26,  27,  63,  82,  129, 
171,  175,  201,  202 

Peartree,  170 

Pine,  2,  10,  26,  27,  201,  203 

Satin  walnut,  80,  201,  203 

Svcamore,  170,  203      - 

Walnut,  2,  26,  27,  80,  129, 
160,  201,  202 
Woods  for  carving,  notes  on, 

201 
Wrist  play,  12,  71 


TUJC   CAMFFIKLP   PBfcJKa,    ST.    AJ-BANi 


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